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Opioids
Revision as of 03:49, 18 March 2018 by >Unity(Remove 'physical euphoria' effect)
It is strongly discouraged to combine these substances, particularly in common to heavy doses.
Opioids are psychoactive substances that resemble morphine or other opiates in their pharmacological effects.[citation needed] Opioids work by binding to opioid receptors, which are found in the central and peripheral nervous system and the gastrointestinal tract.[citation needed] The receptors in these organ systems mediate both the beneficial effects and the side effects of opioids.
Common substances that affect the u-opioid receptor: morphine, codeine, diacetylmorphine (Heroin), naloxone (Narcan), methadone, tramadol.Poppy pod scored to release opium latexDried pods for preparation of tea or solvent extraction of alkaloids
Although the term opiate is often used as a synonym for opioid, the term opiate is limited to drugs derived from the natural alkaloids found in the resin of the opium poppy (Papaver somniferum).[2]
While opioid is a more general term for substances that act primarily on opioid receptors, including natural occurring alkaloids, synthetic substances and opioid peptides.[3]
Opioid dependence can develop with ongoing administration, leading to a withdrawal syndrome with abrupt discontinuation.[4] Opioids are not only well known for their addictive properties, but also for their ability to produce a feeling of euphoria, motivating some to use opioids recreationally.
Opioids are based upon morphine and opium-like structures. They work via their similar chemical structures to the endogenous opioids in the body. Morphine derived opioids, known as morphinans, contain a benzene ring attached to two partially unsaturated cyclohexane rings (phenanthrene) and a 4th nitrogenous ring attached to the core at carbons 9 and 13. There are several classes of opioids which differ greatly in structure from each other. For example, fentanyl and its analogues are structurally unique from morphinans and tramadol derivatives.
Opioids are known to mimic endogenous endorphins. Endorphins are responsible for analgesia (reducing pain), causing sleepiness, and feelings of pleasure. They can be released in response to pain, strenuous exercise, orgasm, or excitement. This mimicking of natural endorphins results in the drug's euphoric, analgesic (pain relief) and anxiolytic (anti-anxiety) effects.[5]
Receptor types
Opioids act on the three main classes of opioid receptor in the nervous system, μ, κ, δ (mu, kappa, and delta).[6] Each opioid is measured by its agonistic or antagonistic effects towards the receptors, with the responses to the different receptor sub-types (e.g., μ1 and μ2) providing even more effects. Opioid receptors are found mainly within the brain, but also within the spinal cord and digestive tract.[7]
Delta (δ)
The delta receptor is responsible for the analgesia, antidepressant and convulsant effects as well as physical dependence.[6]
The nociceptin receptor is responsible for anxiety, depression, appetite and development of tolerance to μ agonists.[8][9]
Zeta (ζ)
The zeta opioid receptor, also known as opioid growth factor receptor (OGFr) is responsible for tissue growth, neural development, and is further implicated in the development in some cancers.[10][11][12][13][14][15] The endogenous ligand for OGFr is met-enkephalin, which is also a powerful endogenous delta opioid receptor agonist.[16]
Subjective effects
Disclaimer: The effects listed below cite the Subjective Effect Index (SEI), an open research literature based on anecdotal user reports and the personal analyses of PsychonautWikicontributors. As a result, they should be viewed with a healthy degree of skepticism.
It is also worth noting that these effects will not necessarily occur in a predictable or reliable manner, although higher doses are more liable to induce the full spectrum of effects. Likewise, adverse effects become increasingly likely with higher doses and may include addiction, severe injury, or death ☠.
Respiratory depression - At low to moderate doses, this effect results in the sensation that the breath is slowed down mildly to moderately, but does not cause noticeable impairment. At high doses and overdoses, opioid-induced respiratory depression can result in a shortness of breath, abnormal breathing patterns, semi-consciousness, or unconsciousness. Severe overdoses can result in a coma or death without immediate medical attention.
Double vision - At high doses, opioids can cause the eyes un-focus and re-focus uncontrollably. This creates a blurred effect and double vision that is present no matter where one focuses their eyes.
Hallucinatory states
Internal hallucinations - One may experience feelings of hypnagogia during a state of "nodding" which is often accompanied by vivid dream-like visions.
The short-term non-chronic use of opioids is not associated with any physical or neurological toxicity.[citation needed]
Long term effects
The long-term use of opioids causes hormonal imbalance in both men and women.[17] In men, this opioid-induced androgen deficiency results in abnormally low levels of sex hormones, particularly testosterone.[18]
This negative change in endocrine function in males can lead to: reduced libido, erectile dysfunction, fatigue, depression, reduced facial and body hair, decreased muscle mass, and weight gain.
It is strongly recommended that one use harm reduction practices when using this class of substances.
Tolerance and addiction potential
Due to the highly euphoric nature of these substances, the recreational use and abuse of opioids has an extremely high rate of addiction and dependence. This is combined with a tolerance which builds up quickly, necessitates that the user take increasingly high dosages in order to get the same effects.
The risk of fatal opioid overdoses rise sharply after a period of cessation and relapse, largely because of reduced tolerance.[19] To account for this lack of tolerance, it is safer to only dose a fraction of one's usual dosage if relapsing. It has also been found that the environment one is in can play a role in opioid tolerance. In one scientific study, rats with the same history of heroin administration were significantly more likely to die after receiving their dose in an environment not associated with the drug in contrast to a familiar environment.[20]
Dangerous interactions
Warning:Many psychoactive substances that are reasonably safe to use on their own can suddenly become dangerous and even life-threatening when combined with certain other substances. The following list provides some known dangerous interactions (although it is not guaranteed to include all of them).
Always conduct independent research (e.g. Google, DuckDuckGo, PubMed) to ensure that a combination of two or more substances is safe to consume. Some of the listed interactions have been sourced from TripSit.
Dissociatives - This combination can result in an increased risk of vomiting during unconsciousness and death from the resulting suffocation. If this occurs, users should attempt to fall asleep in the recovery position or have a friend move them into it.
Stimulants - It is dangerous to combine opioids, which are depressants, with stimulants due to the risk of excessive intoxication. Stimulants mask the sedative effect of heroin, which is the main factor most people consider when determining their level of intoxication. Once the stimulant wears off, the effects of heroin will be significantly increased, leading to intensified disinhibition as well as other effects. If combined, one should strictly limit themselves to only taking a certain amount of heroin.
↑Cammarano, W. B., Pittet, J. F., Weitz, S., Schlobohm, R. M., & Marks, J. D. (1998). Acute withdrawal syndrome related to the administration of analgesic and sedative medications in adult intensive care unit patients. Critical care medicine, 26(4), 676-684.
↑Boecker H, Sprenger T, Spilker ME, Henriksen G, Koppenhoefer M, Wagner KJ, Valet M, Berthele A, Tolle TR (November 2008). "The runner's high: opioidergic mechanisms in the human brain". Cerebral Cortex. 18 (11): 2523–31. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhn013. PMID18296435.
↑Zagon IS, Wu Y, McLaughlin PJ (August 1999). "Opioid growth factor and organ development in rat and human embryos". Brain Res. 839 (2): 313–22. doi:10.1016/S0006-8993(99)01753-9. PMID10519055.
↑Sassani JW, Zagon IS, McLaughlin PJ (May 2003). "Opioid growth factor modulation of corneal epithelium: uppers and downers". Curr. Eye Res. 26 (5): 249–62. doi:10.1076/ceyr.26.4.249.15427. PMID12854052.
↑Zagon IS, Smith JP, McLaughlin PJ (March 1999). "Human pancreatic cancer cell proliferation in tissue culture is tonically inhibited by opioid growth factor". Int. J. Oncol. 14 (3): 577–84. doi:10.3892/ijo.14.3.577. PMID10024694.
↑McLaughlin PJ, Levin RJ, Zagon IS (May 1999). "Regulation of human head and neck squamous cell carcinoma growth in tissue culture by opioid growth factor". Int. J. Oncol. 14 (5): 991–8. doi:10.3892/ijo.14.5.991. PMID10200353.
↑Cheng F, Zagon IS, Verderame MF, McLaughlin PJ (November 2007). "The opioid growth factor (OGF)-OGF receptor axis uses the p16 pathway to inhibit head and neck cancer". Cancer Research. 67 (21): 10511–8. doi:10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-07-1922. PMID17974995.
↑Donahue RN, McLaughlin PJ, Zagon IS (March 2009). "Cell Proliferation of Human Ovarian Cancer is Regulated by the Opioid Growth Factor - Opioid Growth Factor Receptor Axis". American Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology. 296 (6): R1716–25. doi:10.1152/ajpregu.00075.2009. PMID19297547.
. PMID 10742280.