Opioids: Difference between revisions

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'''Opioids''' are a class of [[psychoactive substances]] that resemble [[morphine]] or other opiates in their pharmacological effects.{{citation needed}} Opioids work by binding to opioid [[receptors]], which are found in the central and peripheral nervous system and the gastrointestinal tract.{{citation needed}} The receptors in these organ systems mediate both the beneficial effects and the side effects of opioids.

Although the term opiate is often used as a synonym for opioid, the term opiate is limited to drugs derived from the natural alkaloids found in the resin of the opium poppy (''Papaver somniferum'').<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s8CXrbimviMC&pg=PA268|title=Pharmacology and Physiology for Anesthesia: Foundations and Clinical Application: Expert Consult - Online and Print|last=Hemmings|first=Hugh C.|last2=Egan|first2=Talmage D.|publisher=Elsevier Health Scienc,es|year=2013|isbn=1437716792|page=253~~|language=en~~|quote=Opiate is the older term classically used in pharmacology to mean a drug derived from opium. Opioid, a more modern term, is used to designate all substances, both natural and synthetic, that bind to opioid receptors (including antagonists).}}</ref>

Although the term opiate is often used as a synonym for opioid, the term opiate is limited to drugs derived from the natural alkaloids found in the resin of the opium poppy (''Papaver somniferum'').<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s8CXrbimviMC&pg=PA268|title=Pharmacology and Physiology for Anesthesia: Foundations and Clinical Application: Expert Consult - Online and Print|last=Hemmings|first=Hugh C.|last2=Egan|first2=Talmage D.|publisher=Elsevier Health Scienc,es|year=2013|isbn=1437716792|page=253|quote=Opiate is the older term classically used in pharmacology to mean a drug derived from opium. Opioid, a more modern term, is used to designate all substances, both natural and synthetic, that bind to opioid receptors (including antagonists).}}</ref>

While opioid is a more general term for substances that act primarily on opioid receptors, including natural occurring alkaloids, synthetic substances and opioid peptides.<ref name=":17">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s8CXrbimviMC&pg=PA268|title=Pharmacology and Physiology for Anesthesia: Foundations and Clinical Application: Expert Consult - Online and Print|last=Hemmings|first=Hugh C.|last2=Egan|first2=Talmage D.|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|year=2013|isbn=1437716792|page=253~~|language=en~~|quote=Opiate is the older term classically used in pharmacology to mean a drug derived from opium. Opioid, a more modern term, is used to designate all substances, both natural and synthetic, that bind to opioid receptors (including antagonists).}}</ref>

While opioid is a more general term for substances that act primarily on opioid receptors, including natural occurring alkaloids, synthetic substances and opioid peptides.<ref name=":17">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s8CXrbimviMC&pg=PA268|title=Pharmacology and Physiology for Anesthesia: Foundations and Clinical Application: Expert Consult - Online and Print|last=Hemmings|first=Hugh C.|last2=Egan|first2=Talmage D.|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|year=2013|isbn=1437716792|page=253|quote=Opiate is the older term classically used in pharmacology to mean a drug derived from opium. Opioid, a more modern term, is used to designate all substances, both natural and synthetic, that bind to opioid receptors (including antagonists).}}</ref>

Opioid dependence can develop with ongoing administration, leading to a withdrawal syndrome with abrupt discontinuation.<ref>Cammarano, W. B., Pittet, J. F., Weitz, S., Schlobohm, R. M., & Marks, J. D. (1998). Acute withdrawal syndrome related to the administration of analgesic and sedative medications in adult intensive care unit patients. Critical care medicine, 26(4), 676-684.</ref> Opioids are not only well known for their addictive properties, but also for their ability to produce a feeling of euphoria, motivating some to use opioids recreationally.

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[[File:Opioid_metabolism.png|thumb|Metabolic pathway of [[codeine]] and [[morphine]] courtesy of [https://www.pharmgkb.org/pathway/PA146123006 Pharmgkb.org] ]]

Opioids are known to mimic endogenous endorphins. Endorphins are responsible for analgesia (reducing pain), causing sleepiness, and feelings of pleasure. They can be released in response to pain, strenuous exercise, orgasm, or excitement. This mimicking of natural endorphins results in the drug's [[Physical euphoria|euphoric]], [[Pain relief|analgesic]] (pain relief) and [[Anxiety suppression|anxiolytic]] (anti-anxiety) effects.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Boecker H, Sprenger T, Spilker ME, Henriksen G, Koppenhoefer M, Wagner KJ, Valet M, Berthele A, Tolle TR | title = The runner's high: opioidergic mechanisms in the human brain ~~| language = en~~ | journal = Cerebral Cortex | volume = 18 | issue = 11 | pages = 2523–31 | date = November 2008 | pmid = 18296435 | doi = 10.1093/cercor/bhn013 }}</ref>

Opioids are known to mimic endogenous endorphins. Endorphins are responsible for analgesia (reducing pain), causing sleepiness, and feelings of pleasure. They can be released in response to pain, strenuous exercise, orgasm, or excitement. This mimicking of natural endorphins results in the drug's [[Physical euphoria|euphoric]], [[Pain relief|analgesic]] (pain relief) and [[Anxiety suppression|anxiolytic]] (anti-anxiety) effects.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Boecker H, Sprenger T, Spilker ME, Henriksen G, Koppenhoefer M, Wagner KJ, Valet M, Berthele A, Tolle TR | title = The runner's high: opioidergic mechanisms in the human brain | journal = Cerebral Cortex | volume = 18 | issue = 11 | pages = 2523–31 | date = November 2008 | pmid = 18296435 | doi = 10.1093/cercor/bhn013 }}</ref>

===Receptor types===

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 '''Opioids''' are a class of [[psychoactive substances]] that resemble [[morphine]] or other opiates in their pharmacological effects.{{citation needed}} Opioids work by binding to opioid [[receptors]], which are found in the central and peripheral nervous system and the gastrointestinal tract.{{citation needed}} The receptors in these organ systems mediate both the beneficial effects and the side effects of opioids.
-Although the term opiate is often used as a synonym for opioid, the term opiate is limited to drugs derived from the natural alkaloids found in the resin of the opium poppy (''Papaver somniferum'').<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s8CXrbimviMC&pg=PA268|title=Pharmacology and Physiology for Anesthesia: Foundations and Clinical Application: Expert Consult - Online and Print|last=Hemmings|first=Hugh C.|last2=Egan|first2=Talmage D.|publisher=Elsevier Health Scienc,es|year=2013|isbn=1437716792|page=253|language=en|quote=Opiate is the older term classically used in pharmacology to mean a drug derived from opium. Opioid, a more modern term, is used to designate all substances, both natural and synthetic, that bind to opioid receptors (including antagonists).}}</ref>
+Although the term opiate is often used as a synonym for opioid, the term opiate is limited to drugs derived from the natural alkaloids found in the resin of the opium poppy (''Papaver somniferum'').<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s8CXrbimviMC&pg=PA268|title=Pharmacology and Physiology for Anesthesia: Foundations and Clinical Application: Expert Consult - Online and Print|last=Hemmings|first=Hugh C.|last2=Egan|first2=Talmage D.|publisher=Elsevier Health Scienc,es|year=2013|isbn=1437716792|page=253|quote=Opiate is the older term classically used in pharmacology to mean a drug derived from opium. Opioid, a more modern term, is used to designate all substances, both natural and synthetic, that bind to opioid receptors (including antagonists).}}</ref>
-While opioid is a more general term for substances that act primarily on opioid receptors, including natural occurring alkaloids, synthetic substances and opioid peptides.<ref name=":17">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s8CXrbimviMC&pg=PA268|title=Pharmacology and Physiology for Anesthesia: Foundations and Clinical Application: Expert Consult - Online and Print|last=Hemmings|first=Hugh C.|last2=Egan|first2=Talmage D.|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|year=2013|isbn=1437716792|page=253|language=en|quote=Opiate is the older term classically used in pharmacology to mean a drug derived from opium. Opioid, a more modern term, is used to designate all substances, both natural and synthetic, that bind to opioid receptors (including antagonists).}}</ref>
+While opioid is a more general term for substances that act primarily on opioid receptors, including natural occurring alkaloids, synthetic substances and opioid peptides.<ref name=":17">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s8CXrbimviMC&pg=PA268|title=Pharmacology and Physiology for Anesthesia: Foundations and Clinical Application: Expert Consult - Online and Print|last=Hemmings|first=Hugh C.|last2=Egan|first2=Talmage D.|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|year=2013|isbn=1437716792|page=253|quote=Opiate is the older term classically used in pharmacology to mean a drug derived from opium. Opioid, a more modern term, is used to designate all substances, both natural and synthetic, that bind to opioid receptors (including antagonists).}}</ref>
 Opioid dependence can develop with ongoing administration, leading to a withdrawal syndrome with abrupt discontinuation.<ref>Cammarano, W. B., Pittet, J. F., Weitz, S., Schlobohm, R. M., & Marks, J. D. (1998). Acute withdrawal syndrome related to the administration of analgesic and sedative medications in adult intensive care unit patients. Critical care medicine, 26(4), 676-684.</ref> Opioids are not only well known for their addictive properties, but also for their ability to produce a feeling of euphoria, motivating some to use opioids recreationally.
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 [[File:Opioid_metabolism.png|thumb|Metabolic pathway of [[codeine]] and [[morphine]] courtesy of [https://www.pharmgkb.org/pathway/PA146123006 Pharmgkb.org] ]]
-Opioids are known to mimic endogenous endorphins. Endorphins are responsible for analgesia (reducing pain), causing sleepiness, and feelings of pleasure. They can be released in response to pain, strenuous exercise, orgasm, or excitement. This mimicking of natural endorphins results in the drug's [[Physical euphoria|euphoric]], [[Pain relief|analgesic]] (pain relief) and [[Anxiety suppression|anxiolytic]] (anti-anxiety) effects.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Boecker H, Sprenger T, Spilker ME, Henriksen G, Koppenhoefer M, Wagner KJ, Valet M, Berthele A, Tolle TR | title = The runner's high: opioidergic mechanisms in the human brain | language = en | journal = Cerebral Cortex | volume = 18 | issue = 11 | pages = 2523–31 | date = November 2008 | pmid = 18296435 | doi = 10.1093/cercor/bhn013 }}</ref>
+Opioids are known to mimic endogenous endorphins. Endorphins are responsible for analgesia (reducing pain), causing sleepiness, and feelings of pleasure. They can be released in response to pain, strenuous exercise, orgasm, or excitement. This mimicking of natural endorphins results in the drug's [[Physical euphoria|euphoric]], [[Pain relief|analgesic]] (pain relief) and [[Anxiety suppression|anxiolytic]] (anti-anxiety) effects.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Boecker H, Sprenger T, Spilker ME, Henriksen G, Koppenhoefer M, Wagner KJ, Valet M, Berthele A, Tolle TR | title = The runner's high: opioidergic mechanisms in the human brain | journal = Cerebral Cortex | volume = 18 | issue = 11 | pages = 2523–31 | date = November 2008 | pmid = 18296435 | doi = 10.1093/cercor/bhn013 }}</ref>
 ===Receptor types===