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Cannabis: Difference between revisions
>David Hedlund added ==Chemistry== ===Hypothetical differences between ''C. indica'' and ''C. sativa''=== -- pasted https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entourage_effect#Hypothetical_differences_between_C._indica_and_C._sativa |
>MegurineLuka m tiny typo |
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{{SubstanceBox/Cannabis}} | {{SubstanceBox/Cannabis}} | ||
'''Cannabis''' (also known as '''THC''', '''marijuana''',<ref name=" | '''Cannabis''' (also known as '''THC''',<ref name="wikithc">{{Citation | title=Definition of THC| url=https://wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrahydrocannabinol}}</ref> '''marijuana''',<ref name="wikimarijuana">{{Citation | title=Definition of Marijuana | url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marijuana_(word)&oldid=1097216058}}</ref> '''weed''',<ref name="merriamweed">{{Citation | title=Definition of Weed | url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/weed}}</ref> '''pot''',<ref name="merriampot">{{Citation | title=Definition of POT | url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/pot}}</ref> '''grass''',<ref name="merriamgrass">{{Citation | title=Definition of Grass | url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/grass}}</ref> '''hemp''',<ref name="merriamhemp">{{Citation | title=Definition of HEMP | url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/hemp}}</ref> '''zaza''',<ref name="urbanzaza">{{Citation | title=Definition of Zaza| url=https://www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=Zaza}}</ref> '''kush''',<ref name="urbankush">{{Citation | title=Definition of Kush| url=https://www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=Kush}}</ref> and many others) is a preparation of the cannabis plant that produces psychoactive effects when consumed (via [[smoking]], [[vaporizing]], or [[oral|ingestion]]). It is the most used illicit substance in the world.<ref name="ErowidCannabisVaultLegalStatus">{{Citation | title=Erowid Cannabis Vault : Legal Status | url=https://www.erowid.org/plants/cannabis/cannabis_law.shtml}}</ref><ref name="WDR-2010">{{Citation | title=WDR-2010 | url=//www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/WDR-2010.html}}</ref> The mechanism of action is [[agonist|binding activity]] at [[cannabinoid]] [[receptors]] distributed throughout the body.{{citation needed}} | ||
The principal psychoactive constituent of cannabis is tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), which makes up one of 483 known compounds in the plant,<ref>{{cite book | vauthors=((Russo, E. B.)) | date=5 September 2013 | title=Cannabis and Cannabinoids: Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutic Potential | publisher=Routledge | isbn=9781136614934}}</ref> including at least 84 other [[Chemical class::cannabinoid|cannabinoids]] such as [[cannabidiol]] (CBD), cannabinol (CBN), tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV),<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((El-Alfy, A. T.)), ((Ivey, K.)), ((Robinson, K.)), ((Ahmed, S.)), ((Radwan, M.)), ((Slade, D.)), ((Khan, I.)), ((ElSohly, M.)), ((Ross, S.)) | journal=Pharmacology, biochemistry, and behavior | title=Antidepressant-like effect of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol and other cannabinoids isolated from Cannabis sativa L | volume=95 | issue=4 | pages=434–442 | date= June 2010 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2866040/ | issn=0091-3057 | doi=10.1016/j.pbb.2010.03.004}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Fusar-Poli, P.)), ((Crippa, J. A.)), ((Bhattacharyya, S.)), ((Borgwardt, S. J.)), ((Allen, P.)), ((Martin-Santos, R.)), ((Seal, M.)), ((Surguladze, S. A.)), ((O’Carrol, C.)), ((Atakan, Z.)), ((Zuardi, A. W.)), ((McGuire, P. K.)) | journal=Archives of General Psychiatry | title=Distinct Effects of Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol and Cannabidiol on Neural Activation During Emotional Processing | volume=66 | issue=1 | pages=95 | date=1 January 2009 | url=https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/fullarticle/482939 | issn=0003-990X | doi=10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2008.519}}</ref> and cannabigerol (CBG). At least three species are recognized: ''Cannabis sativa'', ''Cannabis indica'', and ''Cannabis ruderalis''.{{citation needed}} | The principal psychoactive constituent of cannabis is tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), which makes up one of 483 known compounds in the plant,<ref>{{cite book | vauthors=((Russo, E. B.)) | date=5 September 2013 | title=Cannabis and Cannabinoids: Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutic Potential | publisher=Routledge | isbn=9781136614934}}</ref> including at least 84 other [[Chemical class::cannabinoid|cannabinoids]] such as [[cannabidiol]] (CBD), cannabinol (CBN), tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV),<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((El-Alfy, A. T.)), ((Ivey, K.)), ((Robinson, K.)), ((Ahmed, S.)), ((Radwan, M.)), ((Slade, D.)), ((Khan, I.)), ((ElSohly, M.)), ((Ross, S.)) | journal=Pharmacology, biochemistry, and behavior | title=Antidepressant-like effect of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol and other cannabinoids isolated from Cannabis sativa L | volume=95 | issue=4 | pages=434–442 | date= June 2010 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2866040/ | issn=0091-3057 | doi=10.1016/j.pbb.2010.03.004}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Fusar-Poli, P.)), ((Crippa, J. A.)), ((Bhattacharyya, S.)), ((Borgwardt, S. J.)), ((Allen, P.)), ((Martin-Santos, R.)), ((Seal, M.)), ((Surguladze, S. A.)), ((O’Carrol, C.)), ((Atakan, Z.)), ((Zuardi, A. W.)), ((McGuire, P. K.)) | journal=Archives of General Psychiatry | title=Distinct Effects of Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol and Cannabidiol on Neural Activation During Emotional Processing | volume=66 | issue=1 | pages=95 | date=1 January 2009 | url=https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/fullarticle/482939 | issn=0003-990X | doi=10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2008.519}}</ref> and cannabigerol (CBG). At least three species are recognized: ''Cannabis sativa'', ''Cannabis indica'', and ''Cannabis ruderalis''.{{citation needed}} | ||
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==Chemistry== | ==Chemistry== | ||
Cannabis plants contain a number of different specific compounds at various ratios. Cannabis contains more than 460 compounds;<ref name="Ben2006">{{cite journal | vauthors=((Ben Amar, M.)) | journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology | title=Cannabinoids in medicine: A review of their therapeutic potential | volume=105 | issue=1–2 | pages=1–25 | date= April 2006 | url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0378874106000821 | issn=03788741 | doi=10.1016/j.jep.2006.02.001}}</ref> at least 80 of these are [[cannabinoid]]s,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Downer, E. J.)), ((Campbell, V. A.)) | journal=Drug and Alcohol Review | title=Phytocannabinoids, CNS cells and development: A dead issue?: Phytocannabinoids have neurotoxic properties | volume=29 | issue=1 | pages=91–98 | date=5 August 2009 | url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1465-3362.2009.00102.x | issn=09595236 | doi=10.1111/j.1465-3362.2009.00102.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Burns, T. L.)), ((Ineck, J. R.)) | journal=Annals of Pharmacotherapy | title=Cannabinoid Analgesia as a Potential New Therapeutic Option in the Treatment of Chronic Pain | volume=40 | issue=2 | pages=251–260 | date= February 2006 | url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1345/aph.1G217 | issn=1060-0280 | doi=10.1345/aph.1G217}}</ref> chemical compounds that interact with cannabinoid receptors in the brain.<ref name="Borgelt2013">{{cite journal | vauthors=((Borgelt, L. M.)), ((Franson, K. L.)), ((Nussbaum, A. M.)), ((Wang, G. S.)) | journal=Pharmacotherapy: The Journal of Human Pharmacology and Drug Therapy | title=The Pharmacologic and Clinical Effects of Medical Cannabis | volume=33 | issue=2 | pages=195–209 | date= February 2013 | url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/phar.1187 | issn=02770008 | doi=10.1002/phar.1187}}</ref> The most common cannabinoids are listed below: | Cannabis plants contain a number of different specific compounds at various ratios. Cannabis contains more than 460 compounds;<ref name="Ben2006">{{cite journal | vauthors=((Ben Amar, M.)) | journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology | title=Cannabinoids in medicine: A review of their therapeutic potential | volume=105 | issue=1–2 | pages=1–25 | date= April 2006 | url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0378874106000821 | issn=03788741 | doi=10.1016/j.jep.2006.02.001}}</ref> at least 80 of these are [[cannabinoid]]s,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Downer, E. J.)), ((Campbell, V. A.)) | journal=Drug and Alcohol Review | title=Phytocannabinoids, CNS cells and development: A dead issue?: Phytocannabinoids have neurotoxic properties | volume=29 | issue=1 | pages=91–98 | date=5 August 2009 | url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1465-3362.2009.00102.x | issn=09595236 | doi=10.1111/j.1465-3362.2009.00102.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Burns, T. L.)), ((Ineck, J. R.)) | journal=Annals of Pharmacotherapy | title=Cannabinoid Analgesia as a Potential New Therapeutic Option in the Treatment of Chronic Pain | volume=40 | issue=2 | pages=251–260 | date= February 2006 | url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1345/aph.1G217 | issn=1060-0280 | doi=10.1345/aph.1G217}}</ref> chemical compounds that interact with cannabinoid receptors in the brain.<ref name="Borgelt2013">{{cite journal | vauthors=((Borgelt, L. M.)), ((Franson, K. L.)), ((Nussbaum, A. M.)), ((Wang, G. S.)) | journal=Pharmacotherapy: The Journal of Human Pharmacology and Drug Therapy | title=The Pharmacologic and Clinical Effects of Medical Cannabis | volume=33 | issue=2 | pages=195–209 | date= February 2013 | url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/phar.1187 | issn=02770008 | doi=10.1002/phar.1187}}</ref> The most common cannabinoids are listed below: | ||
===Phytocannabinoids=== | ===Phytocannabinoids=== | ||
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|{{effects/physical| | |{{effects/physical| | ||
*'''[[Effect::Sedation]]'''<ref name="Robson2001"/> - | *'''[[Effect::Sedation]]'''<ref name="Robson2001"/> - Cannabis may produce a mild sense of [[Stimulation|stimulation]] at low to moderate doses. Its effects are primarily sedating and can even be [[hypnotic]]. These relaxing properties are suppressed by consciously forcing oneself to engage in physical activities. <p>In terms of its stimulating effects, these subjective aspects of THC typically last 2-3 hours, whereas the half-life of CBD, which is more relaxing, is 9 hours.<ref name="MechoulamParker2002">{{cite journal|last1=Mechoulam|first1=Raphael|last2=Parker|first2=Linda A.|last3=Gallily|first3=Ruth|title=Cannabidiol: An Overview of Some Pharmacological Aspects|journal=The Journal of Clinical Pharmacology|volume=42|issue=S1|year=2002|pages=11S–19S|issn=00912700|doi=10.1002/j.1552-4604.2002.tb05998.x}}</ref> Thus, the first dose of cannabis after a period of abstinence will tend to be far more stimulating than subsequent doses, which must compete with the relaxing effects of previous doses. <p>Because the relaxation both persists much longer and shares many of the same pathways as the stimulation, regular ingestion of THC also leads to increased tolerance to its stimulating effects, but not to its relaxing effects.{{citation needed}} | ||
*'''[[Effect::Spontaneous bodily sensations]]''' - The "body high" of cannabis is extremely variable and depends entirely on the individual strain as well as dose and method of intake. In general, however, it can be described as a relatively pleasurable, sometimes warm, soft, intoxicating and all-encompassing sensation. At high dosages, it can cause some users to feel shaky or nerve-wracked. | *'''[[Effect::Spontaneous bodily sensations]]''' - The "body high" of cannabis is extremely variable and depends entirely on the individual strain as well as dose and method of intake. In general, however, it can be described as a relatively pleasurable, sometimes warm, soft, intoxicating and all-encompassing sensation. At high dosages, it can cause some users to feel shaky or nerve-wracked. | ||
*'''[[Effect::Appetite enhancement]]''' - The feeling of increased appetite following the use of cannabis has been documented for hundreds of years<ref>{{cite book | veditors=((Mechoulam, R.)) | date= 1986 | title=Cannabinoids as therapeutic agents | publisher=CRC Press | isbn=9780849357725}}</ref> and is known colloquially as "the munchies". Cannabis has been shown in recent studies to stimulate the release of the hormone ghrelin which is normally released by the stomach when empty as a signal for the brain to search for food.<ref>Investigating the Neuroendocrine and Behavioral Controls of Cannabis-Induced Feeding Behavior. JF Davis, PQ Choi, J Kunze, P Wahl, Washington State University Pullman, WA, USA. Presented July 2018, Society for the Study of Ingestive Behavior, Bonita Springs, FL.</ref> | *'''[[Effect::Appetite enhancement]]''' - The feeling of increased appetite following the use of cannabis has been documented for hundreds of years<ref>{{cite book | veditors=((Mechoulam, R.)) | date= 1986 | title=Cannabinoids as therapeutic agents | publisher=CRC Press | isbn=9780849357725}}</ref> and is known colloquially as "the munchies". Cannabis has been shown in recent studies to stimulate the release of the hormone ghrelin which is normally released by the stomach when empty as a signal for the brain to search for food.<ref>Investigating the Neuroendocrine and Behavioral Controls of Cannabis-Induced Feeding Behavior. JF Davis, PQ Choi, J Kunze, P Wahl, Washington State University Pullman, WA, USA. Presented July 2018, Society for the Study of Ingestive Behavior, Bonita Springs, FL.</ref> | ||
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==Strains and forms== | ==Strains and forms== | ||
===Strains=== | ===Strains=== | ||
[[File:Cannab2 new.png|thumb|right|200px|Types of cannabis]] | [[File:Cannab2 new.png|thumb|right|200px|Types of cannabis]] | ||
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Indica plants typically grow short and wide compared to sativa plants which grow tall and thin. Indica plants are better suited for indoor growing because of their short growth and sativa plants are better suited for outdoor growing because some strains can reach over 25 ft. in height. | Indica plants typically grow short and wide compared to sativa plants which grow tall and thin. Indica plants are better suited for indoor growing because of their short growth and sativa plants are better suited for outdoor growing because some strains can reach over 25 ft. in height. | ||
Marijuana strains range from pure sativas to pure indicas with hybrid strains consisting of both indica and sativa (for example, 30% indica – 70% sativa, 50% – 50% combinations, or 80% indica – 20% sativa). | |||
====Hypothetical phytocannabinoiod differences between ''C. indica'' and ''C. sativa''==== | |||
The effects of ''sativa'' may be used for a high, while ''indica'' may be used for its sedative effects. Both types are used as medical cannabis. | |||
*Cannabinoid ratios: On average, ''Cannabis indica'' has higher levels of [[Tetrahydrocannabinol|THC]] compared to [[Cannabidiol|CBD]], whereas ''Cannabis sativa'' has lower levels of THC to CBD.<ref name="Hillig">{{cite journal |author1=Karl W. Hillig |author2=Paul G. Mahlberg |year=2004 |title=A chemotaxonomic analysis of cannabinoid variation in ''Cannabis'' (Cannabaceae) |journal=[[American Journal of Botany]] |volume=91 |issue=6 |pages=966–975 |pmid=21653452 |doi=10.3732/ajb.91.6.966|doi-access=free }}</ref> However, huge variability exists within either species. A 2015 study shows the average THC content of the most popular herbal cannabis products in the Netherlands has decreased slightly since 2005.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Niesink RJ, Rigter S, Koeter MW, Brunt TM |title=Potency trends of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol, cannabidiol and cannabinol in cannabis in the Netherlands: 2005-15 |journal=Addiction |volume=110 |issue=12 |pages=1941–50 |year=2015 |doi=10.1111/add.13082 |pmid=26234170}}</ref> | |||
*Terpene ratios: Sativa ancestry is associated with farnesene and bergamotene, while Indica ancestry is associated with myrcene, elemene, and sesquiterpene alcohols. | |||
=====Criticism===== | |||
In 2022, studies found that plants identified as "indica" or "sativa" based on common methods of differentiation (e.g. plant height or leaf shape) are not, in fact, chemically distinguishable, with many identified as "sativa" having cannabinoid ratios predicted of "indica" plants and vice versa. The authors have concluded that the chemical makeup of cannabis plants cannot be reliably determined by simple inspection of the plants' physical characteristics and that the "indica" and "sativa" labels are not informative as to the cannabinoids (or other chemical components) delivered.<ref>{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0267498| issn = 1932-6203| volume = 17| issue = 5| pages = –0267498| last1 = Smith| first1 = Christiana J.| last2 = Vergara| first2 = Daniela| last3 = Keegan| first3 = Brian| last4 = Jikomes| first4 = Nick| title = The phytochemical diversity of commercial Cannabis in the United States| journal = PLOS ONE| date = 2022| pmid = 35588111| pmc = 9119530| bibcode = 2022PLoSO..1767498S| doi-access = free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal| issn = 1664-462X| volume = 13| last1 = Murovec| first1 = Jana| last2 = Eržen| first2 = Jan Jurij| last3 = Flajšman| first3 = Marko| last4 = Vodnik| first4 = Dominik| title = Analysis of Morphological Traits, Cannabinoid Profiles, THCAS Gene Sequences, and Photosynthesis in Wide and Narrow Leaflet High-Cannabidiol Breeding Populations of Medical Cannabis| journal = Frontiers in Plant Science| date = 2022| page = 786161| doi = 10.3389/fpls.2022.786161| pmid = 35283868| pmc = 8907982| doi-access = free}}</ref> | |||
===Forms=== | ===Forms=== | ||
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{{headerpanel|{{Template:Warning/Cannabis}}}} | {{headerpanel|{{Template:Warning/Cannabis}}}} | ||
[[File:HarmCausedByDrugsTable.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|Table from the 2010 ISCD study ranking various drugs (legal and illegal) based on statements by drug-harm experts. Cannabis was found to be the eighth overall most dangerous drug.<ref name="Nutt_2010">{{cite journal | vauthors = Nutt DJ, King LA, Phillips LD | title = Drug harms in the UK: a multicriteria decision analysis | journal = Lancet | volume = 376 | issue = 9752 | pages = 1558–1565 | date = November 2010 | pmid = 21036393 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(10)61462-6 | s2cid = 5667719 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.690.1283 }}</ref>]] | |||
[[File:harmchart.png|thumb|right|300px|Radar plot showing relative physical harm, social harm, and dependence of cannabis<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Nutt, D.)), ((King, L. A.)), ((Saulsbury, W.)), ((Blakemore, C.)) | journal=The Lancet | title=Development of a rational scale to assess the harm of drugs of potential misuse | volume=369 | issue=9566 | pages=1047–1053 | date=24 March 2007 | url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140673607604644 | issn=0140-6736 | doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60464-4}}</ref>]] | [[File:harmchart.png|thumb|right|300px|Radar plot showing relative physical harm, social harm, and dependence of cannabis<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Nutt, D.)), ((King, L. A.)), ((Saulsbury, W.)), ((Blakemore, C.)) | journal=The Lancet | title=Development of a rational scale to assess the harm of drugs of potential misuse | volume=369 | issue=9566 | pages=1047–1053 | date=24 March 2007 | url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140673607604644 | issn=0140-6736 | doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60464-4}}</ref>]] | ||
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Individuals with a personal or family history of mental illness, particularly psychotic disorders like schizophrenia, should '''not''' use cannabis without the advice of a qualified mental health practitioner. | Individuals with a personal or family history of mental illness, particularly psychotic disorders like schizophrenia, should '''not''' use cannabis without the advice of a qualified mental health practitioner. | ||
===Trauma=== | |||
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannabis_use_and_trauma Cannabis use and trauma] are linked, with trauma playing a role in encouraging both the use and potential misuse of cannabis.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hyman SM, Sinha R | title = Stress-related factors in cannabis use and misuse: implications for prevention and treatment | journal = Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment | volume = 36 | issue = 4 | pages = 400–13 | date = June 2009 | pmid = 19004601 | doi = 10.1016/j.jsat.2008.08.005 | pmc = 2696937 }}</ref> Conversely, cannabis use has been associated with the intensity of trauma and PTSD symptoms.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bonn-Miller MO, Vujanovic AA, Feldner MT, Bernstein A, Zvolensky MJ | title = Posttraumatic stress symptom severity predicts marijuana use coping motives among traumatic event-exposed marijuana users | journal = Journal of Traumatic Stress | volume = 20 | issue = 4 | pages = 577–86 | date = August 2007 | pmid = 17721963 | doi = 10.1002/jts.20243 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kevorkian S, Bonn-Miller MO, Belendiuk K, Carney DM, Roberson-Nay R, Berenz EC | title = Associations among trauma, posttraumatic stress disorder, cannabis use, and cannabis use disorder in a nationally representative epidemiologic sample | journal = Psychology of Addictive Behaviors | volume = 29 | issue = 3 | pages = 633–8 | date = September 2015 | pmid = 26415060 | doi = 10.1037/adb0000110 | pmc = 4699174 }}</ref> While evidence of efficacious use of cannabis is growing in novelty, it is not currently recommended.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Black N, Stockings E, Campbell G, Tran LT, Zagic D, Hall WD, Farrell M, Degenhardt L | display-authors = 6 | title = Cannabinoids for the treatment of mental disorders and symptoms of mental disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis | journal = The Lancet. Psychiatry | volume = 6 | issue = 12 | pages = 995–1010 | date = December 2019 | pmid = 31672337 | doi = 10.1016/s2215-0366(19)30401-8 | pmc = 6949116 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Dagan Y, Yager J | title = Cannabis and Complex Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Narrative Review With Considerations of Benefits and Harms | journal = The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease | volume = 208 | issue = 8 | pages = 619–627 | date = August 2020 | pmid = 32433200 | doi = 10.1097/nmd.0000000000001172 | s2cid = 218766009 }}</ref> | |||
===Lethal dosage=== | ===Lethal dosage=== | ||
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{{reflist|2}} | {{reflist|2}} | ||
[[Category:Psychoactive substance]] | |||
[[Category:Cannabis (genus)| ]] | [[Category:Cannabis (genus)| ]] | ||
[[Category:Entheogen]] | [[Category:Entheogen]] | ||