Opioids: Difference between revisions

Opioid dependence can develop with ongoing administration, leading to a withdrawal syndrome with abrupt discontinuation.<ref>Cammarano, W. B., Pittet, J. F., Weitz, S., Schlobohm, R. M., & Marks, J. D. (1998). Acute withdrawal syndrome related to the administration of analgesic and sedative medications in adult intensive care unit patients. Critical care medicine, 26(4), 676-684.</ref> Opioids are not only well known for their addictive properties, but also for their ability to produce a feeling of euphoria, motivating some to use opioids recreationally.

(http://www.stoppain.org / Beth Israel Medical Center's Department of Pain Medicine and Palliative Care) | https://web.archive.org/web/20110719072413/http://www.stoppain.org/pcd/_pdf/OpioidChapter2.pdf</ref> Each opioid is measured by its [[agonist]]ic or [[antagonist]]ic effects towards the receptors, with the responses to the different receptor sub-types (e.g., μ1 and μ2) providing even more effects. Opioid receptors are found mainly within the brain, but also within the spinal cord and digestive tract.<ref>Opioid receptors in the gastrointestinal tract

(PubMed.gov / NCBI) | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3163293</ref>

The zeta opioid receptor, also known as opioid growth factor receptor (OGFr) is responsible for tissue growth, neural development, and is further implicated in the development in some cancers.<ref name="pmid10519055">{{cite journal | vauthors = Zagon IS, Wu Y, McLaughlin PJ | title = Opioid growth factor and organ development in rat and human embryos | journal = Brain Res. | volume = 839 | issue = 2 | pages = 313–22 |date=August 1999 | pmid = 10519055 | doi = 10.1016/S0006-8993(99)01753-9  | url =  | issn = }}</ref><ref name="pmid12854052">{{cite journal | vauthors = Sassani JW, Zagon IS, McLaughlin PJ | title = Opioid growth factor modulation of corneal epithelium: uppers and downers | journal = Curr. Eye Res. | volume = 26 | issue = 5 | pages = 249–62 |date=May 2003 | pmid = 12854052 | doi = 10.1076/ceyr.26.4.249.15427| url = | issn = }}</ref><ref name="pmid10024694">{{cite journal | vauthors = Zagon IS, Smith JP, McLaughlin PJ | title = Human pancreatic cancer cell proliferation in tissue culture is tonically inhibited by opioid growth factor | journal = Int. J. Oncol. | volume = 14 | issue = 3 | pages = 577–84 |date=March 1999 | pmid = 10024694 | doi = 10.3892/ijo.14.3.577| url = | issn = }}</ref><ref name="pmid10200353">{{cite journal | vauthors = McLaughlin PJ, Levin RJ, Zagon IS | title = Regulation of human head and neck squamous cell carcinoma growth in tissue culture by opioid growth factor | journal = Int. J. Oncol. | volume = 14 | issue = 5 | pages = 991–8 |date=May 1999 | pmid = 10200353 | doi = 10.3892/ijo.14.5.991| url = | issn = }}</ref><ref name="pmid17974995">{{cite journal |vauthors=Cheng F, Zagon IS, Verderame MF, McLaughlin PJ |title=The opioid growth factor (OGF)-OGF receptor axis uses the p16 pathway to inhibit head and neck cancer |journal=Cancer Research |volume=67 |issue=21 |pages=10511–8 |date=November 2007 |pmid=17974995 |doi=10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-07-1922 |url= |issn=}}</ref><ref name="pmid19297547">{{cite journal |vauthors=Donahue RN, McLaughlin PJ, Zagon IS |title=Cell Proliferation of Human Ovarian Cancer is Regulated by the Opioid Growth Factor - Opioid Growth Factor Receptor Axis |journal=American Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology |volume= 296|issue= 6|pages= R1716–25|date=March 2009 |pmid=19297547 |doi=10.1152/ajpregu.00075.2009 |url= |issn=}}</ref> The endogenous ligand for OGFr is met-enkephalin, which is also a powerful endogenous delta opioid receptor agonist.<ref name="Stein1999">{{cite book | author = Christoph Stein | title = Opioids in pain control: basic and clinical aspects | url = https://books.google.com/books?id = 4Rfr8cQayvgC&pg = PA22 | accessdate = 25 November 2011 | year = 1999 | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn = 978-0-521-62269-1 | pages = 22–23}}</ref>

*'''[[Sedation]]'''

*'''[[Cognitive euphoria|Euphoria]]''' - This can be described as a powerful and overwhelming feeling of emotional bliss, contentment, and happiness.

*'''[[Motivation enhancement|Motivation enhancement]]''' - Some opioids (such as [[kratom]]) are more stimulating than others and seem to enhance motivation.

*'''[[Anxiety suppression|Anxiety suppression]]'''

The long-term use of opioids causes hormonal imbalance in both men and women.<ref>The effect of opioid therapy on endocrine function. (PubMed.gov / NCBI) | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23414717</ref> In men, this opioid-induced androgen deficiency results in abnormally low levels of sex hormones, particularly testosterone.<ref>Opioid-induced androgen deficiency (OPIAD). (PubMed.gov / NCBI) | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22786453</ref>

The risk of fatal opioid overdoses rise sharply after a period of cessation and [[relapse]], largely because of reduced tolerance.<ref>Why Heroin Relapse Often Ends In Death - Lauren F Friedman (Business Insider) | http://www.businessinsider.com.au/philip-seymour-hoffman-overdose-2014-2</ref> To account for this lack of tolerance, it is safer to only dose a fraction of one's usual [[dosage]] if relapsing. It has also been found that the environment one is in can play a role in opioid tolerance. In one scientific study, rats with the same history of heroin administration were significantly more likely to die after receiving their dose in an environment not associated with the drug in contrast to a familiar environment.<ref>Siegel, S., Hinson, R., Krank, M., & McCully, J. (1982). Heroin “overdose” death: contribution of drug-associated environmental cues. Science, 216(4544), 436–437. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.7200260</ref>

[[Category:Opioid|*]]