This is an unofficial archive of PsychonautWiki as of 2025-08-11T15:14:44Z. Content on this page may be outdated, incomplete, or inaccurate. Please refer to the original page for the most up-to-date information.
Ayahuasca: Difference between revisions
>David Hedlund {{citation needed}} |
>JohntheCaptain No edit summary |
||
| (45 intermediate revisions by 14 users not shown) | |||
| Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
{{SubstanceBox/Ayahuasca}} | {{SubstanceBox/Ayahuasca}} | ||
{{SummarySheet}} | {{SummarySheet}} | ||
'''Ayahuasca''' (pronounced /eye-uh-WAHS-kuh/ and also known as '''Yagé''') is an umbrella term that refers to a wide variety of traditional and modern brews and infusions of natural plant sources that produce powerful psychoactive or [[hallucinogenic]] effects. Of these, it most commonly consists of a [[DMT]]-containing plant source in combination with one that contains an [[ | '''Ayahuasca''' (pronounced /eye-uh-WAHS-kuh/ and also known as '''Yagé''') is an umbrella term that refers to a wide variety of traditional and modern brews and infusions of natural plant sources that produce powerful psychoactive or [[hallucinogenic]] effects. Of these, it most commonly consists of a [[DMT]]-containing plant source in combination with one that contains an [[MAOI]] or [[RIMA]] (typically sources like [[Harmala_alkaloids#Banisteriopsis_caapi|B. caapi vine]] or [[Harmala_alkaloids#Peganum_harmala_.28Syrian_Rue.29|syrian rue]]) to produce uniquely potent, sometimes medicinal, [[psychoactive class::psychedelic]] effects. | ||
The co-consumption of an MAOI agent is necessary for the combination to work, as the DMT molecule (which is a [[monoamine]] closely related to [[serotonin]]) is rendered almost entirely inactive when digested by itself due to the presence of [[monoamine]] oxidase enzymes in the stomach, which rapidly degrades it.<ref> | The co-consumption of an MAOI agent is necessary for the combination to work, as the DMT molecule (which is a [[monoamine]] closely related to [[serotonin]]) is rendered almost entirely inactive when digested by itself due to the presence of [[monoamine]] oxidase enzymes in the stomach, which rapidly degrades it.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Mhaske, S. B.)), ((Argade, N. P.)) | journal=Tetrahedron | title=The chemistry of recently isolated naturally occurring quinazolinone alkaloids | volume=62 | issue=42 | pages=9787–9826 | date=16 October 2006 | url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040402006012373 | issn=0040-4020 | doi=10.1016/j.tet.2006.07.098}}</ref> | ||
Ayahuasca is used as a traditional spiritual medicine in ceremonies among the Indigenous peoples of Amazonian Peru, many of whom say that they received the instructions in its use directly from the plants and plant spirits themselves. Ayahuasca was first described outside of Indigenous communities in the early 1950s by Harvard ethnobotanist Richard Evans Schultes, who became aware of the Native communities who use it for divinatory and healing purposes. | Ayahuasca is used as a traditional spiritual medicine in ceremonies among the Indigenous peoples of Amazonian Peru, many of whom say that they received the instructions in its use directly from the plants and plant spirits themselves. Ayahuasca was first described outside of Indigenous communities in the early 1950s by Harvard ethnobotanist Richard Evans Schultes, who became aware of the Native communities who use it for divinatory and healing purposes. | ||
As is the case with psychedelics in general, ayahuasca is not considered to be dependence-forming or addictive by the research and medical community.<ref>Lüscher, C., | As is the case with psychedelics in general, ayahuasca is not considered to be dependence-forming or addictive by the research and medical community.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Lüscher, C.)), ((Ungless, M. A.)) | journal=PLoS Medicine | title=The Mechanistic Classification of Addictive Drugs | volume=3 | issue=11 | pages=e437 | date=14 November 2006 | url=https://dx.plos.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.0030437 | issn=1549-1676 | doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0030437}}</ref> Nevertheless, unpredictable adverse reactions such as [[anxiety]], [[paranoia]], [[delusions]] and [[psychosis|psychotic break]]s can still always occur, particularly among those predisposed to psychiatric disorders.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Strassman, R. J.)) | journal=The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease | title=ADVERSE REACTIONS TO PSYCHEDELIC DRUGS. A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE: | volume=172 | issue=10 | pages=577–595 | date= October 1984 | url=http://journals.lww.com/00005053-198410000-00001 | issn=0022-3018 | doi=10.1097/00005053-198410000-00001}}</ref> While these negative reactions or [[bad trip|"bad trips"]] can often be attributed to factors like the user's inexperience or improper preparation of their [[set and setting]], they have been known to happen spontaneously among even the most experienced of users as well. This is why despite its scientifically-backed reputation for possessing both negligible-to-no physical and neurotoxicity,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Nichols, D. E.)) | veditors=((Barker, E. L.)) | journal=Pharmacological Reviews | title=Psychedelics | volume=68 | issue=2 | pages=264–355 | date= April 2016 | url=http://pharmrev.aspetjournals.org/lookup/doi/10.1124/pr.115.011478 | issn=0031-6997 | doi=10.1124/pr.115.011478}}</ref> it is still highly advised to approach this powerful and unpredictable [[hallucinogenic]] substance with the proper amount of precaution, and [[Harm reduction#Hallucinogens|harm reduction practices]] if one chooses to use it. | ||
==History and culture== | ==History and culture== | ||
{{HistoryStub}} | {{HistoryStub}} | ||
A 1000-year-old collection of drug paraphernalia found in a rock shelter in Bolivia features traces of five psychoactive chemicals, including [[cocaine]] and components of [[ayahuasca]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Miller, M. J.)), ((Albarracin-Jordan, J.)), ((Moore, C.)), ((Capriles, J. M.)) | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | title=Chemical evidence for the use of multiple psychotropic plants in a 1,000-year-old ritual bundle from South America | volume=116 | issue=23 | pages=11207–11212 | date=4 June 2019 | url=https://pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.1902174116 | issn=0027-8424 | doi=10.1073/pnas.1902174116}}</ref> | |||
===Ayahuasca ceremonies=== | ===Ayahuasca ceremonies=== | ||
There have been several documented cases of avoidable deaths caused by frauds pretending to be shamans during "traditional" ayahuasca ceremonies.<ref> British backpacker dies after taking hallucinogenic brew in Colombia | There have been several documented cases of avoidable deaths caused by frauds pretending to be shamans during "traditional" ayahuasca ceremonies.<ref>{{Citation | vauthors=((McVeigh, T.)) | year=2014 | title=British backpacker dies after taking hallucinogenic brew in Colombia | url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2014/apr/27/british-backpacker-dies-hallucinogenic-drug-colombia}}</ref><ref>{{Citation | title=Kiwi traveller dies after Amazon drug ritual | url=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/kiwi-traveller-in-peru-dies-after-amazon-drug-ritual/ZSFQL7B7OPI5VZBRY6TCRAHG7I/}}</ref> The ingredient known to cause problems is known specifically as brugmansia, which can cause issues when co-administered with an MAOI. An effective ayahuasca brew does not have to be more complicated than a suitable source of [[DMT]] (such as mimosa or acacia) and a reversible inhibitor of monoamine oxidase A ([[RIMA]] or [[MAOI]]). Using other ingredients along with the ayahuasca can potentially be dangerous; any potential interactions should be carefully researched before ingestion. | ||
Another concern of ayahuasca ceremonies is the culture of mysticism and pseudoscience produced from centuries of mythological ritual, leading to a bias following the delusion of a single cultural narrative. There is an irrational belief that ayahuasca should only to be used in the Amazon rainforest in the presence of a shaman. This belief leads many to shun the idea of taking ayahuasca outside of this potentially toxic environment for no logical reason.<ref>http://psychedelicfrontier.com/entities-plant-spirits | Another concern of ayahuasca ceremonies is the culture of mysticism and pseudoscience produced from centuries of mythological ritual, leading to a bias following the delusion of a single cultural narrative. There is an irrational belief that ayahuasca should only to be used in the Amazon rainforest in the presence of a shaman. This belief leads many to shun the idea of taking ayahuasca outside of this potentially toxic environment for no logical reason.<ref>{{Citation | vauthors=((Frontier, P.)) | year=2014 | title=Are Entities and Plant Spirits Real? | url=http://psychedelicfrontier.com/entities-plant-spirits-skeptics-guide-tripping/}}</ref> | ||
==Pharmacology== | ==Pharmacology== | ||
{{Further|Serotonergic psychedelic}} | {{Further|Serotonergic psychedelic}} | ||
Ayahuasca's [[psychedelic]] effects have been confirmed to come from its efficacy at the [[Serotonin#The 5-HT system|5-HT<sub>2A</sub> receptor]] as a [[Agonist#Agonists|partial agonist]].<ref>The Visual Effects of Ayahuasca in Humans: The First Study to Employ a Ketanserin Blockade | | Ayahuasca's [[psychedelic]] effects have been confirmed to come from its efficacy at the [[Serotonin#The 5-HT system|5-HT<sub>2A</sub> receptor]] as a [[Agonist#Agonists|partial agonist]].<ref>{{Citation | year=2016 | title=The Visual Effects of Ayahuasca in Humans: The First Study to Employ a Ketanserin Blockade | url=https://www.beckleyfoundation.org/2016/03/30/the-visual-effects-of-ayahuasca-in-humans-the-first-study-to-employ-a-ketanserin-blockade/}}</ref> However, the role of these interactions and how they result in the [[psychedelic]] experience continues to remain an object of scientific eludication. | ||
[[Harmala alkaloids]] are classed as MAO-inhibiting [[beta-Carbolines|''beta''-carboline]]s. The three most studied harmala alkaloids in the ''B. caapi'' vine are [[harmine]], [[harmaline]] and [[tetrahydroharmine]]. [[Harmine]] and [[harmaline]] are [[MAOI|selective]] and [[RIMA|reversible]] inhibitors of monoamine oxidase A (MAO-A), while [[tetrahydroharmine]] is a weak [[serotonin]] [[reuptake inhibitor]] (SRI).<ref>Pharmacokinetics of Hoasca alkaloids in healthy humans | [[Harmala alkaloids]] are classed as MAO-inhibiting [[beta-Carbolines|''beta''-carboline]]s. The three most studied harmala alkaloids in the ''B. caapi'' vine are [[harmine]], [[harmaline]] and [[tetrahydroharmine]]. [[Harmine]] and [[harmaline]] are [[MAOI|selective]] and [[RIMA|reversible]] inhibitors of monoamine oxidase A (MAO-A), while [[tetrahydroharmine]] is a weak [[serotonin]] [[reuptake inhibitor]] (SRI).<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Callaway, J. C.)), ((McKenna, D. J.)), ((Grob, C. S.)), ((Brito, G. S.)), ((Raymon, L. P.)), ((Poland, R. E.)), ((Andrade, E. N.)), ((Andrade, E. O.)), ((Mash, D. C.)) | journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology | title=Pharmacokinetics of Hoasca alkaloids in healthy humans | volume=65 | issue=3 | pages=243–256 | date=1 June 1999 | url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378874198001688 | issn=0378-8741 | doi=10.1016/S0378-8741(98)00168-8}}</ref> | ||
This inhibition of MAO-A allows [[DMT]] to diffuse unmetabolized past the membranes in the stomach and small intestine, eventually crossing the blood–brain barrier (which, by itself, requires no MAO-A inhibition) to activate receptor sites in the brain. Without RIMAs or MAOIs of MAO-A, DMT would be oxidized (and thus rendered biologically inactive) by monoamine oxidase enzymes in the digestive tract.<ref> | This inhibition of MAO-A allows [[DMT]] to diffuse unmetabolized past the membranes in the stomach and small intestine, eventually crossing the blood–brain barrier (which, by itself, requires no MAO-A inhibition) to activate receptor sites in the brain. Without RIMAs or MAOIs of MAO-A, DMT would be oxidized (and thus rendered biologically inactive) by monoamine oxidase enzymes in the digestive tract.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Riba, J.)) | title=Human pharmacology of ayahuasca | date= 2003 | url=https://ddd.uab.cat/pub/tesis/2003/tdx-0701104-165104/jr1de6.pdf}}</ref> | ||
==Subjective effects== | ==Subjective effects== | ||
{{Preamble/SubjectiveEffects}} | {{Preamble/SubjectiveEffects}} | ||
{{effects/base | {{effects/base | ||
| Line 34: | Line 36: | ||
*'''[[Effect::Spontaneous physical sensations]]''' - The "body high" of ayahuasca can be described as a pleasurable, warm, soft and all-encompassing glow. For some, it is manifested spontaneously at different, unpredictable points throughout the trip, but for others, it maintains a consistent presence that steadily rises with the onset and hits its limit once the peak has been reached. | *'''[[Effect::Spontaneous physical sensations]]''' - The "body high" of ayahuasca can be described as a pleasurable, warm, soft and all-encompassing glow. For some, it is manifested spontaneously at different, unpredictable points throughout the trip, but for others, it maintains a consistent presence that steadily rises with the onset and hits its limit once the peak has been reached. | ||
**'''[[Effect::Physical euphoria]]''' | **'''[[Effect::Physical euphoria]]''' | ||
*'''[[Effect::Nausea]]''' - In its traditional form, ayahuasca is famous for its purgative properties which can include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea and cold flashes. This effect is known as "la purga" or "the purge" and its presence is completely avoidable and dependent on the specific form or [[Preparation|recipe]] of ayahuasca being used. The intense vomiting and occasional [[Effect::Diarrhea|diarrhea]] it induces is often considered by many [[shamans]] and experienced users of ayahuasca to be an essential part of the experience as it represents a speculative healing process and the release of negative emotions built up over the course of one's life.<ref> | *'''[[Effect::Nausea]]''' - In its traditional form, ayahuasca is famous for its purgative properties which can include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea and cold flashes. This effect is known as "la purga" or "the purge" and its presence is completely avoidable and dependent on the specific form or [[Preparation|recipe]] of ayahuasca being used. The intense vomiting and occasional [[Effect::Diarrhea|diarrhea]] it induces is often considered by many [[shamans]] and experienced users of ayahuasca to be an essential part of the experience as it represents a speculative healing process and the release of negative emotions built up over the course of one's life.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors=((Campos, D. J.)), ((Roman, A.)), ((Overton, G.)) | date= 2011 | title=The shaman & ayahuasca: journeys to sacred realms | publisher=Divine Arts | isbn=9781611250039}}}}</ref> Studies have demonstrated a certain truth behind this speculation and shown that the purging process can clear the body of worms and other tropical parasites.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Andritzky, W.)) | journal=Journal of Psychoactive Drugs | title=Sociopsychotherapeutic Functions of Ayahuasca Healing in Amazonia | volume=21 | issue=1 | pages=77–89 | date=1 January 1989 | url=https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.1989.10472145 | issn=0279-1072 | doi=10.1080/02791072.1989.10472145}}</ref> [[Harmala alkaloids]] themselves have been shown to expel parasitic worms from the body by either stunning or killing them.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Hassan, I.)) | journal=Economic Botany | title=Some folk uses ofPeganum harmala in India and Pakistan | volume=21 | issue=3 | pages=284–284 | date=1 July 1967 | url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02860378 | issn=1874-9364 | doi=10.1007/BF02860378}}</ref> Thus, this action is twofold; a direct action on the parasites by these [[harmala alkaloids]] (particularly [[harmine]] in ayahuasca) works to kill the parasites and the parasites are expelled through the increased intestinal motility that is caused by these alkaloids. It is worth noting that the overall cognitive positivity or negativity of an ayahuasca trip in psychologically balanced individuals depends greatly on how nauseating or purgative the chosen method of preparation is. For example, [[paranoia]], [[anxiety]], [[delirium]] and a difficulty stringing thoughts together often immediately manifest themselves during uncomfortable states of nausea for the inexperienced, but remain absent when purge-free methods of preparation are used. | ||
*'''[[Effect::Changes in felt bodily form]]''' | *'''[[Effect::Changes in felt bodily form]]''' | ||
*'''[[Effect::Muscle relaxation]]''' or '''[[Effect::Muscle tension]]''' | *'''[[Effect::Muscle relaxation]]''' or '''[[Effect::Muscle tension]]''' | ||
*'''[[Effect::Physical autonomy]]''' | *'''[[Effect::Physical autonomy]]''' | ||
*'''[[Effect::Motor control loss]]''' | *'''[[Effect::Motor control loss]]''' | ||
*'''[[Effect::Sudden loss of consciousness when walking]]''' | |||
*'''[[Effect::Muscle contractions]]''' | *'''[[Effect::Muscle contractions]]''' | ||
*'''[[Effect::Muscle spasms]]''' | *'''[[Effect::Muscle spasms]]''' | ||
| Line 96: | Line 99: | ||
*'''[[Effect::Emotion enhancement]]''' | *'''[[Effect::Emotion enhancement]]''' | ||
*'''[[Effect::Empathy, affection, and sociability enhancement]]''' - This effect differs from MDMA and other [[entactogens]] in that it isn't as central to the experience, feels more natural and less forced, and is experienced at a less consistent rate. The sociability enhancement in particular only occurs sometimes in certain settings. | *'''[[Effect::Empathy, affection, and sociability enhancement]]''' - This effect differs from MDMA and other [[entactogens]] in that it isn't as central to the experience, feels more natural and less forced, and is experienced at a less consistent rate. The sociability enhancement in particular only occurs sometimes in certain settings. | ||
*'''[[Effect::Euthymia]]''' - This effect manifests itself acutely for all classical psychedelics when one to three doses are combined with a psychotherapy treatment program. When comparing meta analyses, psychedelic psychotherapy greatly outperforms "gold standard" treatments for several mental health problems. | |||
*'''[[Effect::Perceived exposure to inner mechanics of consciousness]]''' | *'''[[Effect::Perceived exposure to inner mechanics of consciousness]]''' | ||
*'''[[Effect::Decreased libido]]''' | |||
*'''[[Effect::Enhancement and suppression cycles]]''' | *'''[[Effect::Enhancement and suppression cycles]]''' | ||
*'''[[Effect::Personal meaning enhancement]]''' | *'''[[Effect::Personal meaning enhancement]]''' | ||
| Line 145: | Line 150: | ||
{{#ask: [[Category:Ayahuasca]][[Category:Experience]]|format=ul|Columns=1}} | {{#ask: [[Category:Ayahuasca]][[Category:Experience]]|format=ul|Columns=1}} | ||
Additional experience reports can be found here: | Additional experience reports can be found here: | ||
* [https://www.erowid.org/experiences/subs/exp_Ayahuasca.shtml Erowid Experience Vaults: Ayahuasca] | |||
*[https://www.erowid.org/experiences/subs/exp_Ayahuasca.shtml Erowid Experience Vaults: Ayahuasca] | |||
==Natural plant sources== | ==Natural plant sources== | ||
*[[DMT#Mimosa hostilis root bark|''Mimosa hostilis'' root bark]] | *[[DMT#Mimosa hostilis root bark|''Mimosa hostilis'' root bark]] | ||
*[[DMT#Acacia confusa root bark|''Acacia confusa'' root bark]] | *[[DMT#Acacia confusa root bark|''Acacia confusa'' root bark]] | ||
| Line 154: | Line 161: | ||
===Other=== | ===Other=== | ||
*[[Psychotria viridis (botany)|''Psychotria viridis'' leaves]] | *[[Psychotria viridis (botany)|''Psychotria viridis'' leaves]] | ||
*[[Diplopterys cabrerana (botany)|''Diplopterys cabrerana'' leaves]] | *[[Diplopterys cabrerana (botany)|''Diplopterys cabrerana'' leaves]] | ||
| Line 166: | Line 174: | ||
===Pharmahuasca=== | ===Pharmahuasca=== | ||
For pharmahuasca, 50 mg N,N-DMT and 100 mg harmaline is usually the recommended dosage per person. However, combinations of 50 mg harmaline, 50 mg harmine, and 50 mg, N,N-DMT have been tested with success. As a rule, the fewer the β-carbolines, the less nausea there is; the more DMT, the more spectacular the visions. The constituents are put into separate gelatin capsules. The capsules with harmaline/harmine are swallowed first and then the capsule containing the DMT is taken 15 to 20 minutes later. The purely synthetic MAO inhibitor [[isocarboxazid]] (Marplan) is suitable in place of harmaline and harmine, although caution should be taken as this is an irreversible [[MAOI]], marking several drug-drug and drug-food interactions.<ref>Ott J. | For pharmahuasca, 50 mg N,N-DMT and 100 mg harmaline is usually the recommended dosage per person. However, combinations of 50 mg harmaline, 50 mg harmine, and 50 mg, N,N-DMT have been tested with success. As a rule, the fewer the β-carbolines, the less nausea there is; the more DMT, the more spectacular the visions. The constituents are put into separate gelatin capsules. The capsules with harmaline/harmine are swallowed first and then the capsule containing the DMT is taken 15 to 20 minutes later. The purely synthetic MAO inhibitor [[isocarboxazid]] (Marplan) is suitable in place of harmaline and harmine, although caution should be taken as this is an irreversible [[MAOI]], marking several drug-drug and drug-food interactions.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors=((Ott, J.)) | date= 1994 | title=Ayahuasca analogues: Pangæan entheogens | publisher=Natural Products Co | edition=1st ed. | isbn=9780961423445}}</ref> | ||
===Recipes and preparation methods=== | ===Recipes and preparation methods=== | ||
*[[Ayahuasca brew]] | *[[Ayahuasca brew]] | ||
==Potential therapeutic applications== | ==Potential therapeutic applications== | ||
===Potential antidepressant effects=== | ===Potential antidepressant effects=== | ||
A 2015 preliminary report has found a significant reduction of up to 82% in depressive scores following ayahuasca administration.<ref>Antidepressant effects of a single dose of ayahuasca in patients with recurrent depression: a preliminary report | A 2015 preliminary report has found a significant reduction of up to 82% in depressive scores following ayahuasca administration.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Osório, F. de L.)), ((Sanches, R. F.)), ((Macedo, L. R.)), ((Santos, R. G. dos)), ((Maia-de-Oliveira, J. P.)), ((Wichert-Ana, L.)), ((Araujo, D. B. de)), ((Riba, J.)), ((Crippa, J. A.)), ((Hallak, J. E.)) | journal=Brazilian Journal of Psychiatry | title=Antidepressant effects of a single dose of ayahuasca in patients with recurrent depression: a preliminary report | volume=37 | pages=13–20 | date= March 2015 | url=http://www.scielo.br/j/rbp/a/ghG6Q7cLTgSRF6JxJjj6LMS/?lang=en | issn=1516-4446 | doi=10.1590/1516-4446-2014-1496}}</ref> The report concludes that "these results suggest that [ayahuasca] has fast-acting anxiolytic and antidepressant effects in patients with a depressive disorder." Its acute and fast-acting effects show promise for the treatment of depression as common antidepressants, such as fluoxetine (Prozac), take weeks to show significant effects and are simply ineffective for many users. | ||
A 2016 placebo randomized controlled trial evaluated the rapid antidepressant effects of the psychedelic ayahuasca in treatment-resistant depression with positive outcome.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Palhano-Fontes |first1=F |last2=Barreto |first2=D |last3=Onias |first3=H |last4=Andrade |first4=KC |last5=Novaes |first5=MM |last6=Pessoa |first6=JA |last7=Mota-Rolim |first7=SA |last8=Osório |first8=FL |last9=Sanches |first9=R |last10=Dos Santos |first10=RG |last11=Tófoli |first11=LF |last12=de Oliveira Silveira |first12=G |last13=Yonamine |first13=M |last14=Riba |first14=J |last15=Santos |first15=FR |last16=Silva-Junior |first16=AA |last17=Alchieri |first17=JC |last18=Galvão-Coelho |first18=NL |last19=Lobão-Soares |first19=B |last20=Hallak |first20=JEC |last21=Arcoverde |first21=E |last22=Maia-de-Oliveira |first22=JP |last23=Araújo |first23=DB |title=Rapid antidepressant effects of the psychedelic ayahuasca in treatment-resistant depression: a randomized placebo-controlled trial. |journal=Psychological medicine |date=March 2019 |volume=49 |issue=4 |pages=655-663 |doi=10.1017/S0033291718001356 |pmid=29903051}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Antidepressant Effects of Ayahuasca: a Randomized Placebo Controlled Trial in Treatment Resistant Depression - Full Text View - ClinicalTrials.gov |url=https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02914769 |website=clinicaltrials.gov |language=en}}</ref> | |||
The mechanism by which ayahuasca produces antidepressant effects is not well known, but studies have hypothesized that the MAO-inhibitor and weak [[serotonin]] [[reuptake inhibitor]] effects of ayahuasca alkaloids may be of relevance. Research on the antidepressant potential of [[psilocin]] suggests that the subjective effects of 5-HT<sub>2A</sub> agonism also contribute to antidepressant effects, but further research is required to understand the effects of psychedelic drugs on depressive disorders. | The mechanism by which ayahuasca produces antidepressant effects is not well known, but studies have hypothesized that the MAO-inhibitor and weak [[serotonin]] [[reuptake inhibitor]] effects of ayahuasca alkaloids may be of relevance. Research on the antidepressant potential of [[psilocin]] suggests that the subjective effects of 5-HT<sub>2A</sub> agonism also contribute to antidepressant effects, but further research is required to understand the effects of psychedelic drugs on depressive disorders. | ||
| Line 179: | Line 190: | ||
==Toxicity and harm potential== | ==Toxicity and harm potential== | ||
{{Further|Responsible use#Hallucinogens}} | {{Further|Responsible use#Hallucinogens}} | ||
Ayahuasca is non-addictive, is not known to cause brain damage, and has extremely low toxicity relative to dose. Similar to other [[psychedelic]] drugs, there are relatively few physical side effects associated with ayahuasca. Various studies have shown that it presents no negative cognitive, psychiatric or toxic physical consequences of any sort when taken in reasonable doses and a careful context.<ref>Safety and side effects of ayahuasca in humans--an overview focusing on developmental toxicology. | Ayahuasca is non-addictive, is not known to cause brain damage, and has extremely low toxicity relative to dose. Similar to other [[psychedelic]] drugs, there are relatively few physical side effects associated with ayahuasca. Various studies have shown that it presents no negative cognitive, psychiatric or toxic physical consequences of any sort when taken in reasonable doses and a careful context.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Santos, R. G. dos)) | journal=Journal of Psychoactive Drugs | title=Safety and side effects of ayahuasca in humans--an overview focusing on developmental toxicology | volume=45 | issue=1 | pages=68–78 | date= March 2013 | issn=0279-1072 | doi=10.1080/02791072.2013.763564}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Barbosa, P. C. R.)), ((Mizumoto, S.)), ((Bogenschutz, M. P.)), ((Strassman, R. J.)) | journal=Drug Testing and Analysis | title=Health status of ayahuasca users | volume=4 | issue=7–8 | pages=601–609 | date= August 2012 | issn=1942-7611 | doi=10.1002/dta.1383}}</ref> | ||
===Lethal dosage=== | ===Lethal dosage=== | ||
The only available study that tried to estimate the lethal dose ([[LD50|LD<sub>50</sub>]]) of ayahuasca in rats failed to do so due to the enormous amount of brew necessary for the procedure. The authors estimated, however, that ayahuasca's [[Toxicity::LD50 is around 50 times a regular dose]]. This speaks for the safety of ayahuasca usage.<ref>Pic-Taylor | The only available study that tried to estimate the lethal dose ([[LD50|LD<sub>50</sub>]]) of ayahuasca in rats failed to do so due to the enormous amount of brew necessary for the procedure. The authors estimated, however, that ayahuasca's [[Toxicity::LD50 is around 50 times a regular dose]]. This speaks for the physical safety of ayahuasca usage.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Pic-Taylor, A.)), ((Motta, L. G. da)), ((Morais, J. A. de)), ((Junior, W. M.)), ((Santos, A. de F. A.)), ((Campos, L. A.)), ((Mortari, M. R.)), ((Zuben, M. V. von)), ((Caldas, E. D.)) | journal=Behavioural Processes | title=Behavioural and neurotoxic effects of ayahuasca infusion (Banisteriopsis caapi and Psychotria viridis) in female Wistar rat | volume=118 | pages=102–110 | date= September 2015 | issn=1872-8308 | doi=10.1016/j.beproc.2015.05.004}} | ||
</ref> | </ref> | ||
| Line 188: | Line 199: | ||
===Tolerance and addiction potential=== | ===Tolerance and addiction potential=== | ||
Ayahuasca is [[Addiction potential::not habit-forming]] and the desire to use it can actually decrease with use. It is most often self-regulating. | Ayahuasca is [[Addiction potential::not habit-forming]], and the desire to use it can actually decrease with use. It is most often self-regulating. | ||
Similar to DMT, tolerance to the effects of ayahuasca | Similar to DMT, tolerance to the effects of ayahuasca does not build up with repeated usage, and this compound can, therefore, be used repeatedly to any extent. Ayahuasca does not present a cross-tolerance with other psychedelics, meaning that after the consumption of ayahuasca psychedelics will not have a reduced effect. | ||
===Dangerous interactions=== | ===Dangerous interactions=== | ||
| Line 196: | Line 207: | ||
{| | {| | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | | ||
*'''[[5-MeO-MiPT]]''' | *'''[[5-MeO-MiPT]]''' | ||
*'''[[2C-T-7]]''' | *'''[[2C-T-7]]''' | ||
| Line 225: | Line 236: | ||
|} | |} | ||
== | ==Legal status== | ||
{{see also|DMT#Legal status}} | {{see also|Mimosa tenuiflora#Legal status|DMT#Legal status}} | ||
Internationally, DMT is a Schedule I drug under the Convention on Psychotropic Substances. The Commentary on the Convention on Psychotropic Substances notes, however, that the plants containing it are not subject to international control:<ref>{{citation|url=http://www.maps.org/pipermail/maps_forum/2001-March/003376.html |title=DMT – UN report |publisher=MAPS |date=2001-03-31 |accessdate=2012-01-14 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120121083150/http://www.maps.org/pipermail/maps_forum/2001-March/003376.html |archivedate=January 21, 2012 }}</ref> | Internationally, DMT is a Schedule I drug under the Convention on Psychotropic Substances. The Commentary on the Convention on Psychotropic Substances notes, however, that the plants containing it are not subject to international control:<ref>{{citation|url=http://www.maps.org/pipermail/maps_forum/2001-March/003376.html |title=DMT – UN report |publisher=MAPS |date=2001-03-31 |accessdate=2012-01-14 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120121083150/http://www.maps.org/pipermail/maps_forum/2001-March/003376.html |archivedate=January 21, 2012 }}</ref> | ||
<blockquote> | <blockquote> | ||
The cultivation of plants from which psychotropic substances are obtained is not controlled by the Vienna Convention. . . . Neither the crown (fruit, mescal button) of the Peyote cactus nor the roots of the plant Mimosa hostilis nor Psilocybe mushrooms themselves are included in Schedule 1, but only their respective principals, [[mescaline]], [[N,N-Dimethyltryptamine|DMT]], and [[psilocin]]. | ''"The cultivation of plants from which psychotropic substances are obtained is not controlled by the Vienna Convention. . . . Neither the crown (fruit, mescal button) of the [[Peyote]] cactus nor the roots of the plant [[Mimosa hostilis]] nor [[Psilocybin mushrooms|''Psilocybe'' mushrooms]] themselves are included in Schedule 1, but only their respective principals, [[mescaline]], [[N,N-Dimethyltryptamine|DMT]], and [[psilocin]]."'' | ||
</blockquote> | |||
<blockquote> | |||
''"No plants (natural materials) containing DMT are at present controlled under the 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances. Consequently, preparations (e.g. decoctions) made of these plants, including ayahuasca are not under international control and, therefore, not subject to any of the articles of the 1971 Convention. -- International Narcotics Control Board (INCB), United Nations"''<ref>{{cite book | veditors=((Labate, B. C.)), ((Jungaberle, H.)) | date= 2011 | title=The internationalization of ayahuasca | publisher=Lit | series=Performanzen, interkulturelle Studien zu Ritual, Speil and Theater ; Performances, intercultural studies on ritual, play and theatre | isbn=9783643901484}}</ref> | |||
</blockquote> | </blockquote> | ||
===By country=== | ===By country=== | ||
*'''Brazil:''' The religious (but not therapeutic or recreational) use of ayahuasca is legal.{{ | |||
*'''Peru:''' The traditional use of ayahuasca for therapeutic purposes ("vegetalismo") is legal. | *'''Brazil:''' The religious (but not therapeutic or recreational) use of ayahuasca is legal.<ref>{{Citation | title=Erowid Ayahuasca Vault : Notes on Brazilian Ayahuasca Law | url=https://erowid.org/chemicals/ayahuasca/ayahuasca_law6.shtml}}</ref> | ||
*'''United States:''' | *'''Peru:''' The traditional use of ayahuasca for therapeutic purposes ("vegetalismo") is legal.<ref>Hill, D. (2016, June 7). [https://www.theguardian.com/travel/2016/jun/07/peru-ayahuasca-drink-boom-amazon-spirituality-healing Peru’s ayahuasca industry booms as westerners search for alternative healing], "According to the Ayahuasca Defense Fund, hosted by ICEERS, it is legal in Peru". The Guardian.</ref> | ||
*'''United States:''' | |||
**Louisiana: Except for ornamental purposes, growing, selling or possessing of these ayahuasca plants are prohibited by Louisiana State Act 159:<ref>{{Citation | title=Louisiana Laws - Louisiana State Legislature | url=http://legis.la.gov/Legis/Law.aspx?d=321523}}</ref> | |||
***''Anadenanthera colubrina'' | |||
***''Banisteriopsis spp.'' | |||
***''[[Mimosa hostilis]]'' | |||
***''[[Peganum harmala]]'' | |||
***''Tetrapteris methystica'' | |||
==See also== | ==See also== | ||
*[[Responsible use]] | *[[Responsible use]] | ||
*[[ | *[[UserWiki:David Hedlund/Ayahuasca|“''Guide to Safe Ayahuasca Curanderismo''”]] by [[User:David Hedlund|David Hedlund]] | ||
*[[Preparation#Ayahuasca|Ayahuasca recipes]] | *[[Preparation#Ayahuasca|Ayahuasca recipes]] | ||
*[[Entheogens]] | *[[Entheogens]] | ||
*[[Psychedelics]] | *[[Psychedelics]] | ||
*[[Harmala alkaloids]] | *[[Harmala alkaloids]] | ||
*[[DMT]] | *[[DMT]] | ||
*[[Psilocybin]] | *[[Psilocybin]] | ||
==External links== | ==External links== | ||
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayahuasca Ayahuasca (Wikipedia)] | *[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayahuasca Ayahuasca (Wikipedia)] | ||
*[https://www.erowid.org/chemicals/ayahuasca/ayahuasca.shtml Ayahuasca (Erowid)] | *[https://www.erowid.org/chemicals/ayahuasca/ayahuasca.shtml Ayahuasca (Erowid)] | ||
*[ | *[https://drugs-forum.com/wiki/Ayahuasca Ayahusaca (Drugs-Forum)] | ||
==Literature== | |||
*{{cite book |last1=Ott |first1=Jonathan |title=Ayahuasca analogues : Pangæan entheogens |date=1994 |publisher=Natural Products Co |location=Kennewick, WA |isbn=0961423455 |edition=[1st]}} ([https://www.serendipity.li/dmt/hoasca.html gratis HTML version]) | |||
===Discussion=== | |||
*[https://www.bluelight.org/xf/threads/208983 The Big & Dandy Oral DMT thread (Ayahuasca/Pharmahuasca) (Bluelight)] | |||
==References== | ==References== | ||
<references/> | <references /> | ||
{{#set:Featured=true}} | {{#set:Featured=true}} | ||
[[Category:Preparation]] | |||
[[Category:Entheogen]] | |||
[[Category:Hallucinogen]] | |||
[[Category:Psychedelic]] | [[Category:Psychedelic]] | ||
[[Category: | [[Category:MAOI]] | ||