Cannabis: Difference between revisions

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'''Cannabis''' (also known as '''~~thc~~''','''marijuana''',<ref name="~~wikimarijuanaword~~">{{Citation ~~| year=2022~~ | title=Marijuana ~~(word)~~ | url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marijuana_(word)&oldid=1097216058}}</ref> '''weed''',<ref name="merriamweed">{{Citation | title=Definition of ~~WEED~~ | url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/weed}}</ref> '''pot''',<ref name="merriampot">{{Citation | title=Definition of POT | url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/pot}}</ref>, '''grass''',<ref name="merriamgrass">{{Citation | title=Definition of ~~GRASS~~ | url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/grass}}</ref> '''hemp''',<ref name="merriamhemp">{{Citation | title=Definition of HEMP | url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/hemp}}</ref> and many others) is a preparation of the cannabis plant that produces psychoactive effects when consumed (via [[smoking]], [[vaporizing]], or [[oral|ingestion]]). It is the most used illicit substance in the world.<ref name="ErowidCannabisVaultLegalStatus">{{Citation | title=Erowid Cannabis Vault : Legal Status | url=https://www.erowid.org/plants/cannabis/cannabis_law.shtml}}</ref><ref name="WDR-2010">{{Citation | title=WDR-2010 | url=//www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/WDR-2010.html}}</ref> The mechanism of action is [[agonist|binding activity]] at [[cannabinoid]] [[receptors]] distributed throughout the body.{{citation needed}}

'''Cannabis''' (also known as '''THC''',<ref name="wikithc">{{Citation | title=Definition of THC| url=https://wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrahydrocannabinol}}</ref> '''marijuana''',<ref name="wikimarijuana">{{Citation | title=Definition of Marijuana | url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marijuana_(word)&oldid=1097216058}}</ref> '''weed''',<ref name="merriamweed">{{Citation | title=Definition of Weed | url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/weed}}</ref> '''pot''',<ref name="merriampot">{{Citation | title=Definition of POT | url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/pot}}</ref> '''grass''',<ref name="merriamgrass">{{Citation | title=Definition of Grass | url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/grass}}</ref> '''hemp''',<ref name="merriamhemp">{{Citation | title=Definition of HEMP | url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/hemp}}</ref> '''zaza''',<ref name="urbanzaza">{{Citation | title=Definition of Zaza| url=https://www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=Zaza}}</ref> '''kush''',<ref name="urbankush">{{Citation | title=Definition of Kush| url=https://www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=Kush}}</ref> and many others) is a preparation of the cannabis plant that produces psychoactive effects when consumed (via [[smoking]], [[vaporizing]], or [[oral|ingestion]]). It is the most used illicit substance in the world.<ref name="ErowidCannabisVaultLegalStatus">{{Citation | title=Erowid Cannabis Vault : Legal Status | url=https://www.erowid.org/plants/cannabis/cannabis_law.shtml}}</ref><ref name="WDR-2010">{{Citation | title=WDR-2010 | url=//www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/WDR-2010.html}}</ref> The mechanism of action is [[agonist|binding activity]] at [[cannabinoid]] [[receptors]] distributed throughout the body.{{citation needed}}

The principal psychoactive constituent of cannabis is tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), which makes up one of 483 known compounds in the plant,<ref>{{cite book | vauthors=((Russo, E. B.)) | date=5 September 2013 | title=Cannabis and Cannabinoids: Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutic Potential | publisher=Routledge | isbn=9781136614934}}</ref> including at least 84 other [[Chemical class::cannabinoid|cannabinoids]] such as [[cannabidiol]] (CBD), cannabinol (CBN), tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV),<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((El-Alfy, A. T.)), ((Ivey, K.)), ((Robinson, K.)), ((Ahmed, S.)), ((Radwan, M.)), ((Slade, D.)), ((Khan, I.)), ((ElSohly, M.)), ((Ross, S.)) | journal=Pharmacology, biochemistry, and behavior | title=Antidepressant-like effect of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol and other cannabinoids isolated from Cannabis sativa L | volume=95 | issue=4 | pages=434–442 | date= June 2010 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2866040/ | issn=0091-3057 | doi=10.1016/j.pbb.2010.03.004}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Fusar-Poli, P.)), ((Crippa, J. A.)), ((Bhattacharyya, S.)), ((Borgwardt, S. J.)), ((Allen, P.)), ((Martin-Santos, R.)), ((Seal, M.)), ((Surguladze, S. A.)), ((O’Carrol, C.)), ((Atakan, Z.)), ((Zuardi, A. W.)), ((McGuire, P. K.)) | journal=Archives of General Psychiatry | title=Distinct Effects of Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol and Cannabidiol on Neural Activation During Emotional Processing | volume=66 | issue=1 | pages=95 | date=1 January 2009 | url=https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/fullarticle/482939 | issn=0003-990X | doi=10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2008.519}}</ref> and cannabigerol (CBG). At least three species are recognized: ''Cannabis sativa'', ''Cannabis indica'', and ''Cannabis ruderalis''.{{citation needed}}

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The earliest recorded uses of cannabis date from the 3rd millennium BC.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors=((Booth, M.)) | date=30 September 2011 | title=Cannabis: A History | publisher=Random House | isbn=9781409084891}}</ref> In modern times, cannabis is used for [[recreational drug use|recreational]] or medicinal and religious or spiritual purposes.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors=((Clarke, P. B.)) | date= 1986 | title=Black paradise: the Rastafarian movement | publisher=Aquarian Pr | series=New Religious Movements Series | isbn=9780850304282}}</ref> It played a central role in the 1960s youth counterculture movement and is associated with the art and music of this era.{{citation needed}}

[[Subjective effects]] include [[sedation]], [[appetite enhancement]], [[immersion enhancement]], [[creativity enhancement]], [[increased sense of humor]], [[increased music appreciation]], and [[euphoria]]. The effects can vary widely depending on dose, [[Cannabis#Strains and forms|strain & form]], tolerance, and [[set and setting]]. Notably, it can either strongly [[anxiety suppression|suppress]] or [[anxiety|enhance anxiety]] depending on the individual and situation.

[[Subjective effects]] include [[sedation]], [[appetite enhancement]], [[immersion enhancement]], [[creativity enhancement]], [[increased sense of humor]], [[increased music appreciation]], [[Visual disconnection|visual disconnection]], and [[euphoria]]. The effects can vary widely depending on dose, [[Cannabis#Strains and forms|strain & form]], tolerance, and [[set and setting]]. Notably, it can either strongly [[anxiety suppression|suppress]] or [[anxiety|enhance anxiety]] depending on the individual and situation.

Lower doses are associated with relaxing effects similar to a [[depressant]]. Higher doses are associated with mild-to-moderate [[hallucinogenic]] effects such as [[geometry|visual hallucinations]], [[conceptual thinking]] and [[time distortion]], as well as a greater risk of [[anxiety]], [[paranoia]], and [[delusions]] ~~(generally more prevalent with sativa strains)~~.

Lower doses are associated with relaxing effects similar to a [[depressant]]. Higher doses are associated with mild-to-moderate [[hallucinogenic]] effects such as [[geometry|visual hallucinations]], [[conceptual thinking]] and [[time distortion]], as well as a greater risk of [[anxiety]], [[paranoia]], and [[delusions]].

Cannabis is considered to have low to moderate abuse potential.{{citation needed}} Chronic use is associated with escalating tolerance and psychological dependence in some individuals.{{citation needed}} It has very low physical toxicity and is essentially impossible to physically overdose on. However, it is capable of exacerbating certain mental health symptoms like [[delusions]] or [[psychosis]] in predisposed individuals (see [[cannabis#toxicity and harm potential|this section]]).{{citation needed}}

Long-term cannabis use may be associated with negative cognitive effects such as brain fog, lowered motivation, difficulty learning, and inattention. These effects are typically reversible with tapered use and time off.<ref>Kevin Hill, MD, and MD Michael Hsu. “Cognitive Effects in Midlife of Long-Term Cannabis Use.” ''Harvard Health'', 14 June 2022, <nowiki>https://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/cognitive-effects-of-long-term-cannabis-use-in-midlife-202206142760</nowiki>.</ref>

Cannabis use during brain development (including during pregnancy and adolescence) has been shown to interfere with a variety of neurobiological systems. Meta-analysis following ~5 weeks of abstinence shows lasting changes in the central executive and default mode networks, which are involved in attention and working memory. The extent of these changes as risk factors is not entirely clear.<ref>Hurd, Yasmin L., et al. “Cannabis and the Developing Brain: Insights into Its Long-Lasting Effects.” ''Journal of Neuroscience'', Society for Neuroscience, 16 Oct. 2019, <nowiki>https://www.jneurosci.org/content/39/42/8250</nowiki>.</ref>

It is highly advised to use [[harm reduction practices]] if using this substance.

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==History and culture==

The genus cannabis is indigenous to central Asia and the Indian subcontinent.<ref>{{cite book | veditors=((ElSohly, M. A.)) | date= 2007 | title=Marijuana and the cannabinoids | publisher=Humana Press | series=Forensic science and medicine | isbn=9781588294562}}</ref>

The '''history of cannabis''' and its usage by humans dates back to at least the third millennium BC in written history, and possibly as far back as the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (8800–6500 BCE) based on archaeological evidence. For millennia, the plant has been valued for its use for fiber and rope, as food and medicine, and for its psychoactive properties for religious and recreational use.

The earliest restrictions on cannabis were reported in the Islamic world by the 14th century. In the 19th century, it began to be restricted in colonial countries, often associated with racial and class stresses.

Since the early 20th century, cannabis has been subject to legal restrictions with the possession, use, and sale of cannabis preparations containing psychoactive [[cannabinoids]] currently illegal in most countries. However, there is a recent growing trend towards decriminalization and legalization, with the sale of cannabis made legal in some US states and Canada.

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The word ''cannabis'' is from Greek κάνναβις (''kánnabis'') (see Latin ''cannabis''), which was originally Scythian or Thracian.<ref name="etymonline">{{cite web|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=cannabis|title=Online Etymology Dictionary|publisher=Etymonline.com|access-date=17 February 2011}}</ref> It is related to the Persian ''kanab'', the English ''canvas'' and possibly the English ''hemp'' (Old English ''hænep'').<ref name="etymonline" />

===Common names===

Cannabis has [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_names_for_cannabis numerous common and street names]. The most common ones are: '''marijuana''',<ref name="wikimarijuanaword" /> '''weed''',<ref name="merriamweed" /> '''pot''',<ref name="merriampot" />, '''grass''',<ref name="merriamgrass" /> '''hemp''',<ref name="merriamhemp" />, '''ganja'''.

Cannabis has [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_names_for_cannabis numerous common and street names]. The most common ones are: '''marijuana''',<ref name="wikimarijuanaword" /> '''weed''',<ref name="merriamweed" /> '''pot''',<ref name="merriampot" /> '''grass''',<ref name="merriamgrass" /> '''hemp''',<ref name="merriamhemp" />, '''ganja, THC'''.

==Chemistry==

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|{{effects/physical|

*'''[[Effect::Sedation]]'''<ref name="Robson2001"/> - ~~Although certain strains of cannabis ([[~~Cannabis~~#Strains and forms|e.g. sativas]])~~ produce a mild sense of [[Stimulation|stimulation]] at low to moderate doses~~, its~~ effects are primarily sedating and can even be [[hypnotic]]. These relaxing properties are suppressed by consciously forcing oneself to engage in physical activities. In terms of its stimulating effects, these subjective aspects of THC typically last 2-3 hours, whereas the half-life of CBD, which is more relaxing, is 9 hours.<ref name="MechoulamParker2002">{{cite journal|last1=Mechoulam|first1=Raphael|last2=Parker|first2=Linda A.|last3=Gallily|first3=Ruth|title=Cannabidiol: An Overview of Some Pharmacological Aspects|journal=The Journal of Clinical Pharmacology|volume=42|issue=S1|year=2002|pages=11S–19S|issn=00912700|doi=10.1002/j.1552-4604.2002.tb05998.x}}</ref> Thus, the first dose of cannabis after a period of abstinence will tend to be far more stimulating than subsequent doses, which must compete with the relaxing effects of previous doses. Because the relaxation both persists much longer and shares many of the same pathways as the stimulation, regular ingestion of THC also leads to increased tolerance to its stimulating effects, but not to its relaxing effects.{{citation needed}}

*'''[[Effect::Sedation]]'''<ref name="Robson2001"/> - Cannabis may produce a mild sense of [[Stimulation|stimulation]] at low to moderate doses. Its effects are primarily sedating and can even be [[hypnotic]]. These relaxing properties are suppressed by consciously forcing oneself to engage in physical activities. In terms of its stimulating effects, these subjective aspects of THC typically last 2-3 hours, whereas the half-life of CBD, which is more relaxing, is 9 hours.<ref name="MechoulamParker2002">{{cite journal|last1=Mechoulam|first1=Raphael|last2=Parker|first2=Linda A.|last3=Gallily|first3=Ruth|title=Cannabidiol: An Overview of Some Pharmacological Aspects|journal=The Journal of Clinical Pharmacology|volume=42|issue=S1|year=2002|pages=11S–19S|issn=00912700|doi=10.1002/j.1552-4604.2002.tb05998.x}}</ref> Thus, the first dose of cannabis after a period of abstinence will tend to be far more stimulating than subsequent doses, which must compete with the relaxing effects of previous doses. Because the relaxation both persists much longer and shares many of the same pathways as the stimulation, regular ingestion of THC also leads to increased tolerance to its stimulating effects, but not to its relaxing effects.{{citation needed}}

*'''[[Effect::Spontaneous bodily sensations]]''' - The "body high" of cannabis is extremely variable and depends entirely on the individual strain as well as dose and method of intake. In general, however, it can be described as a relatively pleasurable, sometimes warm, soft, intoxicating and all-encompassing sensation. At high dosages, it can cause some users to feel shaky or nerve-wracked.

*'''[[Effect::Appetite enhancement]]''' - The feeling of increased appetite following the use of cannabis has been documented for hundreds of years<ref>{{cite book | veditors=((Mechoulam, R.)) | date= 1986 | title=Cannabinoids as therapeutic agents | publisher=CRC Press | isbn=9780849357725}}</ref> and is known colloquially as "the munchies". Cannabis has been shown in recent studies to stimulate the release of the hormone ghrelin which is normally released by the stomach when empty as a signal for the brain to search for food.<ref>Investigating the Neuroendocrine and Behavioral Controls of Cannabis-Induced Feeding Behavior. JF Davis, PQ Choi, J Kunze, P Wahl, Washington State University Pullman, WA, USA. Presented July 2018, Society for the Study of Ingestive Behavior, Bonita Springs, FL.</ref>

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*'''[[Effect::Internal hallucination]]''' - The internal hallucinations of cannabis are extremely variable in their appearance depending on the dosage, tolerance and the individual's brain chemistry. They are very inconsistent and for some even rare but can be described as being fainter in appearance when compared to traditional [[psychedelics]] and do not seem to be as regularly composed of visual [[geometry]]. The most common way in which they manifest themselves is through [[Lucid dreaming#Fully defined hypnagogia |hypnagogic]] scenarios. They are most common during high dosages in dark environments and can be comprehensively described through their [[Visual_effects:_Internal_hallucinations#Variations|variations]] as both lucid and delirious in believability, fixed in style, autonomous in controllability, equal in new experiences and memory replays in content and are primarily [[geometry]]-based in style.

*'''[[Effect::Peripheral information misinterpretation]]''' - This very inconsistent effect tends to be mild and fleeting in contrast to other more powerful [[psychoactive substances]]. This effect rarely occurs on cannabis alone but when it does it is often in high dosages and/or when the individual has a low tolerance. It is more likely to manifest itself in certain environments as opposed to others and is more likely to happen if one has used stronger substances recently, typically within the past 24 to 36 hours.

*'''[[Visual disconnection]]'''

}}

|{{effects/cognitive|

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==Strains and forms==

===Strains===

[[File:Cannab2 new.png|thumb|right|200px|Types of cannabis]]

'''Sativa''' and '''indica''' are the two major types of cannabis plants which can mix together to create hybrid strains. ~~Each~~ strain has its own range of effects on the body and mind, resulting in a wide range of medicinal benefits.

'''Sativa''' and '''indica''' are the two major types of cannabis plants which can mix together to create hybrid strains. Because each strain has its own balance of cannabinoids, each strain has its own range of effects on the body and mind, resulting in a wide range of medicinal benefits.

Indica plants typically grow short and wide compared to sativa plants which grow tall and thin. Indica plants are better suited for indoor growing because of their short growth and sativa plants are better suited for outdoor growing because some strains can reach over 25 ft. in height.

~~The high produced~~ from ~~smoking~~ indica ~~bud is a strong physical "body high" that will make one sleepy or [[Sedation|sedated]]~~ and ~~provides a deep relaxation feeling compared to a~~ sativa ~~high~~, ~~which is known to be more energetic and uplifting~~.

Marijuana strains range from pure sativas to pure indicas with hybrid strains consisting of both indica and sativa (for example, 30% indica – 70% sativa, 50% – 50% combinations, or 80% indica – 20% sativa).

~~Marijuana strains range from pure sativas to pure indicas with hybrid strains consisting of both~~ indica and sativa (for ~~example~~, ~~30%~~ indica ~~– 70%~~ sativa, ~~50% – 50% combinations~~, or ~~80% indica – 20%~~ sativa). ~~Because sativa~~ and indica ~~buds have very different medicinal benefits~~ and ~~effects~~, ~~certain strains can be targeted to better treat specific illnesses~~.

====Hypothetical phytocannabinoiod differences between ''C. indica'' and ''C. sativa''====

The effects of ''sativa'' may be used for a high, while ''indica'' may be used for its sedative effects. Both types are used as medical cannabis.

*Cannabinoid ratios: On average, ''Cannabis indica'' has higher levels of [[Tetrahydrocannabinol|THC]] compared to [[Cannabidiol|CBD]], whereas ''Cannabis sativa'' has lower levels of THC to CBD.<ref name="Hillig">{{cite journal |author1=Karl W. Hillig |author2=Paul G. Mahlberg |year=2004 |title=A chemotaxonomic analysis of cannabinoid variation in ''Cannabis'' (Cannabaceae) |journal=[[American Journal of Botany]] |volume=91 |issue=6 |pages=966–975 |pmid=21653452 |doi=10.3732/ajb.91.6.966|doi-access=free }}</ref> However, huge variability exists within either species. A 2015 study shows the average THC content of the most popular herbal cannabis products in the Netherlands has decreased slightly since 2005.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Niesink RJ, Rigter S, Koeter MW, Brunt TM |title=Potency trends of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol, cannabidiol and cannabinol in cannabis in the Netherlands: 2005-15 |journal=Addiction |volume=110 |issue=12 |pages=1941–50 |year=2015 |doi=10.1111/add.13082 |pmid=26234170}}</ref>

*Terpene ratios: Sativa ancestry is associated with farnesene and [ergamotene, while Indica ancestry is associated with myrcene, elemene, and sesquiterpene alcohols.

=====Criticism=====

In 2022, studies found that plants identified as "indica" or "sativa" based on common methods of differentiation (e.g. plant height or leaf shape) are not, in fact, chemically distinguishable, with many identified as "sativa" having cannabinoid ratios predicted of "indica" plants and vice versa. The authors have concluded that the chemical makeup of cannabis plants cannot be reliably determined by simple inspection of the plants' physical characteristics and that the "indica" and "sativa" labels are not informative as to the cannabinoids (or other chemical components) delivered.<ref>{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0267498| issn = 1932-6203| volume = 17| issue = 5| pages = –0267498| last1 = Smith| first1 = Christiana J.| last2 = Vergara| first2 = Daniela| last3 = Keegan| first3 = Brian| last4 = Jikomes| first4 = Nick| title = The phytochemical diversity of commercial Cannabis in the United States| journal = PLOS ONE| date = 2022| pmid = 35588111| pmc = 9119530| bibcode = 2022PLoSO..1767498S| doi-access = free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal| issn = 1664-462X| volume = 13| last1 = Murovec| first1 = Jana| last2 = Eržen| first2 = Jan Jurij| last3 = Flajšman| first3 = Marko| last4 = Vodnik| first4 = Dominik| title = Analysis of Morphological Traits, Cannabinoid Profiles, THCAS Gene Sequences, and Photosynthesis in Wide and Narrow Leaflet High-Cannabidiol Breeding Populations of Medical Cannabis| journal = Frontiers in Plant Science| date = 2022| page = 786161| doi = 10.3389/fpls.2022.786161| pmid = 35283868| pmc = 8907982| doi-access = free}}</ref>

===Forms===

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*'''Edibles''' are cannabis added as an ingredient to one of a variety of foods.

*'''Sublingual/buccal''' consumption typically involves the absorption of cannabinoids through the membranes inside the mouth (usually through a candy or tincture).

*'''~~Tincture~~'''

*'''Tinctures''' vary from edibles, usually only containing extracted (and potent) THC in liquid form. Tinctures can be taken sublingually, or orally.

*'''Topical''' consumption typically involves the use of either a cream or lip balm containing cannabinoids absorbed through the skin.

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{{headerpanel|{{Template:Warning/Cannabis}}}}

[[File:HarmCausedByDrugsTable.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|Table from the 2010 ISCD study ranking various drugs (legal and illegal) based on statements by drug-harm experts. Cannabis was found to be the eighth overall most dangerous drug.<ref name="Nutt_2010">{{cite journal | vauthors = Nutt DJ, King LA, Phillips LD | title = Drug harms in the UK: a multicriteria decision analysis | journal = Lancet | volume = 376 | issue = 9752 | pages = 1558–1565 | date = November 2010 | pmid = 21036393 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(10)61462-6 | s2cid = 5667719 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.690.1283 }}</ref>]]

[[File:harmchart.png|thumb|right|300px|Radar plot showing relative physical harm, social harm, and dependence of cannabis<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Nutt, D.)), ((King, L. A.)), ((Saulsbury, W.)), ((Blakemore, C.)) | journal=The Lancet | title=Development of a rational scale to assess the harm of drugs of potential misuse | volume=369 | issue=9566 | pages=1047–1053 | date=24 March 2007 | url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140673607604644 | issn=0140-6736 | doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60464-4}}</ref>]]

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Cannabis arteritis (CA) is a very rare peripheral vascular disease similar to Buerger's disease.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=El Omri |first1=N |last2=Eljaoudi |first2=R |last3=Mekouar |first3=F |last4=Jira |first4=M |last5=Sekkach |first5=Y |last6=Amezyane |first6=T |last7=Ghafir |first7=D |title=Cannabis arteritis. |journal=The Pan African medical journal |date=2017 |volume=26 |pages=53 |doi=10.11604/pamj.2017.26.53.11694 |pmid=28451030}}</ref>

Cannabis use during brain development (including during pregnancy and adolescence) has been shown to interfere with a variety of neurobiological systems. Meta-analysis following ~5 weeks of abstinence reveals lasting changes in the central executive and default mode networks, which are involved in attention and working memory. The extent of these changes as risk factors is not entirely clear.<ref>Hurd, Yasmin L., et al. “Cannabis and the Developing Brain: Insights into Its Long-Lasting Effects.” ''Journal of Neuroscience'', Society for Neuroscience, 16 Oct. 2019, <nowiki>https://www.jneurosci.org/content/39/42/8250</nowiki>.</ref>

===Suicidality===

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Individuals with a personal or family history of mental illness, particularly psychotic disorders like schizophrenia, should '''not''' use cannabis without the advice of a qualified mental health practitioner.

===Trauma===

[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannabis_use_and_traumaCannabis use and trauma] are linked, with trauma playing a role in encouraging both the use and potential misuse of cannabis.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hyman SM, Sinha R | title = Stress-related factors in cannabis use and misuse: implications for prevention and treatment | journal = Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment | volume = 36 | issue = 4 | pages = 400–13 | date = June 2009 | pmid = 19004601 | doi = 10.1016/j.jsat.2008.08.005 | pmc = 2696937 }}</ref> Conversely, cannabis use has been associated with the intensity of trauma and PTSD symptoms.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bonn-Miller MO, Vujanovic AA, Feldner MT, Bernstein A, Zvolensky MJ | title = Posttraumatic stress symptom severity predicts marijuana use coping motives among traumatic event-exposed marijuana users | journal = Journal of Traumatic Stress | volume = 20 | issue = 4 | pages = 577–86 | date = August 2007 | pmid = 17721963 | doi = 10.1002/jts.20243 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kevorkian S, Bonn-Miller MO, Belendiuk K, Carney DM, Roberson-Nay R, Berenz EC | title = Associations among trauma, posttraumatic stress disorder, cannabis use, and cannabis use disorder in a nationally representative epidemiologic sample | journal = Psychology of Addictive Behaviors | volume = 29 | issue = 3 | pages = 633–8 | date = September 2015 | pmid = 26415060 | doi = 10.1037/adb0000110 | pmc = 4699174 }}</ref> While evidence of efficacious use of cannabis is growing in novelty, it is not currently recommended.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Black N, Stockings E, Campbell G, Tran LT, Zagic D, Hall WD, Farrell M, Degenhardt L | display-authors = 6 | title = Cannabinoids for the treatment of mental disorders and symptoms of mental disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis | journal = The Lancet. Psychiatry | volume = 6 | issue = 12 | pages = 995–1010 | date = December 2019 | pmid = 31672337 | doi = 10.1016/s2215-0366(19)30401-8 | pmc = 6949116 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Dagan Y, Yager J | title = Cannabis and Complex Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Narrative Review With Considerations of Benefits and Harms | journal = The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease | volume = 208 | issue = 8 | pages = 619–627 | date = August 2020 | pmid = 32433200 | doi = 10.1097/nmd.0000000000001172 | s2cid = 218766009 }}</ref>

===Lethal dosage===

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==Legal status==

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{{legend|#e1e1e1|No information}}]]

For table of countries, see Wikipedia's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Global_cannabis_legalization_table global cannabis legalization table].

===United Nations===

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====Rescheduling proposals====

The World Health Organization (WHO) is calling for whole-plant marijuana, as well as cannabis resin, to be removed from Schedule IV—the most restrictive category of a 1961 drug convention signed by countries from around the world.<ref>{{Citation | vauthors=((Angell, T.)) | year=2019 | title=World Health Organization Recommends Reclassifying Marijuana Under International Treaties | url=https://www.marijuanamoment.net/read-the-world-health-organizations-marijuana-rescheduling-recommendations/}}</ref>

'''Sweden:''' Tetrahydrocannabinol is a controlled substance under the 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances<ref name=":0" />. However, it has been approved for medical use by the Swedish Medical Products Agency<ref>Sativex SPC. Sativex is approved for use in Sweden, Denmark, Canada, New Zealand, Spain, Germany and other EU countries. </ref>, in the form of an oral solution sold under the brand name Sativex.<ref>{{Citation | title=Sativex - FASS Allmänhet | url=https://www.fass.se/LIF/product?userType=2&nplId=20101019000051}}</ref><ref>Sativex is prescribed for some adult patients with moderate to severe spasticity caused by multiple sclerosis, if other medications have proven to be insufficient in relieving the patient of symptoms.</ref>

==See also==

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[[Category:Psychoactive substance]]

[[Category:Cannabis (genus)| ]]

[[Category:Entheogen]]

@@ Line 2: / Line 2: @@
 {{SubstanceBox/Cannabis}}
-'''Cannabis''' (also known as '''thc''','''marijuana''',<ref name="wikimarijuanaword">{{Citation | year=2022 | title=Marijuana (word) | url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marijuana_(word)&oldid=1097216058}}</ref> '''weed''',<ref name="merriamweed">{{Citation | title=Definition of WEED | url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/weed}}</ref> '''pot''',<ref name="merriampot">{{Citation | title=Definition of POT | url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/pot}}</ref>, '''grass''',<ref name="merriamgrass">{{Citation | title=Definition of GRASS | url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/grass}}</ref> '''hemp''',<ref name="merriamhemp">{{Citation | title=Definition of HEMP | url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/hemp}}</ref> and many others) is a preparation of the cannabis plant that produces psychoactive effects when consumed (via [[smoking]], [[vaporizing]], or [[oral|ingestion]]). It is the most used illicit substance in the world.<ref name="ErowidCannabisVaultLegalStatus">{{Citation | title=Erowid Cannabis Vault : Legal Status | url=https://www.erowid.org/plants/cannabis/cannabis_law.shtml}}</ref><ref name="WDR-2010">{{Citation | title=WDR-2010 | url=//www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/WDR-2010.html}}</ref> The mechanism of action is [[agonist|binding activity]] at [[cannabinoid]] [[receptors]] distributed throughout the body.{{citation needed}}
+'''Cannabis''' (also known as '''THC''',<ref name="wikithc">{{Citation | title=Definition of THC| url=https://wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrahydrocannabinol}}</ref> '''marijuana''',<ref name="wikimarijuana">{{Citation | title=Definition of Marijuana | url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marijuana_(word)&oldid=1097216058}}</ref> '''weed''',<ref name="merriamweed">{{Citation | title=Definition of Weed | url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/weed}}</ref> '''pot''',<ref name="merriampot">{{Citation | title=Definition of POT | url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/pot}}</ref> '''grass''',<ref name="merriamgrass">{{Citation | title=Definition of Grass | url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/grass}}</ref> '''hemp''',<ref name="merriamhemp">{{Citation | title=Definition of HEMP | url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/hemp}}</ref> '''zaza''',<ref name="urbanzaza">{{Citation | title=Definition of Zaza| url=https://www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=Zaza}}</ref> '''kush''',<ref name="urbankush">{{Citation | title=Definition of Kush| url=https://www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=Kush}}</ref> and many others) is a preparation of the cannabis plant that produces psychoactive effects when consumed (via [[smoking]], [[vaporizing]], or [[oral|ingestion]]). It is the most used illicit substance in the world.<ref name="ErowidCannabisVaultLegalStatus">{{Citation | title=Erowid Cannabis Vault : Legal Status | url=https://www.erowid.org/plants/cannabis/cannabis_law.shtml}}</ref><ref name="WDR-2010">{{Citation | title=WDR-2010 | url=//www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/WDR-2010.html}}</ref> The mechanism of action is [[agonist|binding activity]] at [[cannabinoid]] [[receptors]] distributed throughout the body.{{citation needed}}
 The principal psychoactive constituent of cannabis is tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), which makes up one of 483 known compounds in the plant,<ref>{{cite book | vauthors=((Russo, E. B.)) | date=5 September 2013 | title=Cannabis and Cannabinoids: Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutic Potential | publisher=Routledge | isbn=9781136614934}}</ref> including at least 84 other [[Chemical class::cannabinoid|cannabinoids]] such as [[cannabidiol]] (CBD), cannabinol (CBN), tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV),<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((El-Alfy, A. T.)), ((Ivey, K.)), ((Robinson, K.)), ((Ahmed, S.)), ((Radwan, M.)), ((Slade, D.)), ((Khan, I.)), ((ElSohly, M.)), ((Ross, S.)) | journal=Pharmacology, biochemistry, and behavior | title=Antidepressant-like effect of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol and other cannabinoids isolated from Cannabis sativa L | volume=95 | issue=4 | pages=434–442 | date= June 2010 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2866040/ | issn=0091-3057 | doi=10.1016/j.pbb.2010.03.004}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Fusar-Poli, P.)), ((Crippa, J. A.)), ((Bhattacharyya, S.)), ((Borgwardt, S. J.)), ((Allen, P.)), ((Martin-Santos, R.)), ((Seal, M.)), ((Surguladze, S. A.)), ((O’Carrol, C.)), ((Atakan, Z.)), ((Zuardi, A. W.)), ((McGuire, P. K.)) | journal=Archives of General Psychiatry | title=Distinct Effects of Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol and Cannabidiol on Neural Activation During Emotional Processing | volume=66 | issue=1 | pages=95 | date=1 January 2009 | url=https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/fullarticle/482939 | issn=0003-990X | doi=10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2008.519}}</ref> and cannabigerol (CBG). At least three species are recognized: ''Cannabis sativa'', ''Cannabis indica'', and ''Cannabis ruderalis''.{{citation needed}}
@@ Line 8: / Line 8: @@
 The earliest recorded uses of cannabis date from the 3rd millennium BC.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors=((Booth, M.)) | date=30 September 2011 | title=Cannabis: A History | publisher=Random House | isbn=9781409084891}}</ref> In modern times, cannabis is used for [[recreational drug use|recreational]] or medicinal and religious or spiritual purposes.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors=((Clarke, P. B.)) | date= 1986 | title=Black paradise: the Rastafarian movement | publisher=Aquarian Pr | series=New Religious Movements Series | isbn=9780850304282}}</ref> It played a central role in the 1960s youth counterculture movement and is associated with the art and music of this era.{{citation needed}}
-[[Subjective effects]] include [[sedation]], [[appetite enhancement]], [[immersion enhancement]], [[creativity enhancement]], [[increased sense of humor]], [[increased music appreciation]], and [[euphoria]]. The effects can vary widely depending on dose, [[Cannabis#Strains and forms|strain & form]], tolerance, and [[set and setting]]. Notably, it can either strongly [[anxiety suppression|suppress]] or [[anxiety|enhance anxiety]] depending on the individual and situation.
+[[Subjective effects]] include [[sedation]], [[appetite enhancement]], [[immersion enhancement]], [[creativity enhancement]], [[increased sense of humor]], [[increased music appreciation]], [[Visual disconnection|visual disconnection]], and [[euphoria]]. The effects can vary widely depending on dose, [[Cannabis#Strains and forms|strain & form]], tolerance, and [[set and setting]]. Notably, it can either strongly [[anxiety suppression|suppress]] or [[anxiety|enhance anxiety]] depending on the individual and situation.
-Lower doses are associated with relaxing effects similar to a [[depressant]]. Higher doses are associated with mild-to-moderate [[hallucinogenic]] effects such as [[geometry|visual hallucinations]], [[conceptual thinking]] and [[time distortion]], as well as a greater risk of [[anxiety]], [[paranoia]], and [[delusions]] (generally more prevalent with sativa strains).
+Lower doses are associated with relaxing effects similar to a [[depressant]]. Higher doses are associated with mild-to-moderate [[hallucinogenic]] effects such as [[geometry|visual hallucinations]], [[conceptual thinking]] and [[time distortion]], as well as a greater risk of [[anxiety]], [[paranoia]], and [[delusions]].
 Cannabis is considered to have low to moderate abuse potential.{{citation needed}} Chronic use is associated with escalating tolerance and psychological dependence in some individuals.{{citation needed}} It has very low physical toxicity and is essentially impossible to physically overdose on. However, it is capable of exacerbating certain mental health symptoms like [[delusions]] or [[psychosis]] in predisposed individuals (see [[cannabis#toxicity and harm potential|this section]]).{{citation needed}}
 Long-term cannabis use may be associated with negative cognitive effects such as brain fog, lowered motivation, difficulty learning, and inattention. These effects are typically reversible with tapered use and time off.<ref>Kevin Hill, MD, and MD Michael Hsu. “Cognitive Effects in Midlife of Long-Term Cannabis Use.” ''Harvard Health'', 14 June 2022, <nowiki>https://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/cognitive-effects-of-long-term-cannabis-use-in-midlife-202206142760</nowiki>.</ref>
-Cannabis use during brain development (including during pregnancy and adolescence) has been shown to interfere with a variety of neurobiological systems. Meta-analysis following ~5 weeks of abstinence shows lasting changes in the central executive and default mode networks, which are involved in attention and working memory. The extent of these changes as risk factors is not entirely clear.<ref>Hurd, Yasmin L., et al. “Cannabis and the Developing Brain: Insights into Its Long-Lasting Effects.” ''Journal of Neuroscience'', Society for Neuroscience, 16 Oct. 2019, <nowiki>https://www.jneurosci.org/content/39/42/8250</nowiki>.</ref>
 It is highly advised to use [[harm reduction practices]] if using this substance.
@@ Line 22: / Line 20: @@
 ==History and culture==
 The genus cannabis is indigenous to central Asia and the Indian subcontinent.<ref>{{cite book | veditors=((ElSohly, M. A.)) | date= 2007 | title=Marijuana and the cannabinoids | publisher=Humana Press | series=Forensic science and medicine | isbn=9781588294562}}</ref>
+The '''history of cannabis''' and its usage by humans dates back to at least the third millennium BC in written history, and possibly as far back as the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (8800–6500 BCE) based on archaeological evidence. For millennia, the plant has been valued for its use for fiber and rope, as food and medicine, and for its psychoactive properties for religious and recreational use.
+The earliest restrictions on cannabis were reported in the Islamic world by the 14th century. In the 19th century, it began to be restricted in colonial countries, often associated with racial and class stresses.
 Since the early 20th century, cannabis has been subject to legal restrictions with the possession, use, and sale of cannabis preparations containing psychoactive [[cannabinoids]] currently illegal in most countries. However, there is a recent growing trend towards decriminalization and legalization, with the sale of cannabis made legal in some US states and Canada.
@@ Line 33: / Line 35: @@
 The word ''cannabis'' is from Greek κάνναβις (''kánnabis'') (see Latin ''cannabis''), which was originally Scythian or Thracian.<ref name="etymonline">{{cite web|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=cannabis|title=Online Etymology Dictionary|publisher=Etymonline.com|access-date=17 February 2011}}</ref> It is related to the Persian ''kanab'', the English ''canvas'' and possibly the English ''hemp'' (Old English ''hænep'').<ref name="etymonline" />
 ===Common names===
-Cannabis has [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_names_for_cannabis numerous common and street names]. The most common ones are: '''marijuana''',<ref name="wikimarijuanaword" /> '''weed''',<ref name="merriamweed" /> '''pot''',<ref name="merriampot" />, '''grass''',<ref name="merriamgrass" /> '''hemp''',<ref name="merriamhemp" />, '''ganja'''.
+Cannabis has [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_names_for_cannabis numerous common and street names]. The most common ones are: '''marijuana''',<ref name="wikimarijuanaword" /> '''weed''',<ref name="merriamweed" /> '''pot''',<ref name="merriampot" /> '''grass''',<ref name="merriamgrass" /> '''hemp''',<ref name="merriamhemp" />, '''ganja, THC'''.
 ==Chemistry==
@@ Line 72: / Line 74: @@
 |{{effects/physical|
-*'''[[Effect::Sedation]]'''<ref name="Robson2001"/> - Although certain strains of cannabis ([[Cannabis#Strains and forms|e.g. sativas]]) produce a mild sense of [[Stimulation|stimulation]] at low to moderate doses, its effects are primarily sedating and can even be [[hypnotic]]. These relaxing properties are suppressed by consciously forcing oneself to engage in physical activities. <p>In terms of its stimulating effects, these subjective aspects of THC typically last 2-3 hours, whereas the half-life of CBD, which is more relaxing, is 9 hours.<ref name="MechoulamParker2002">{{cite journal|last1=Mechoulam|first1=Raphael|last2=Parker|first2=Linda A.|last3=Gallily|first3=Ruth|title=Cannabidiol: An Overview of Some Pharmacological Aspects|journal=The Journal of Clinical Pharmacology|volume=42|issue=S1|year=2002|pages=11S–19S|issn=00912700|doi=10.1002/j.1552-4604.2002.tb05998.x}}</ref> Thus, the first dose of cannabis after a period of abstinence will tend to be far more stimulating than subsequent doses, which must compete with the relaxing effects of previous doses. <p>Because the relaxation both persists much longer and shares many of the same pathways as the stimulation, regular ingestion of THC also leads to increased tolerance to its stimulating effects, but not to its relaxing effects.{{citation needed}}
+*'''[[Effect::Sedation]]'''<ref name="Robson2001"/> - Cannabis may produce a mild sense of [[Stimulation|stimulation]] at low to moderate doses. Its effects are primarily sedating and can even be [[hypnotic]]. These relaxing properties are suppressed by consciously forcing oneself to engage in physical activities. <p>In terms of its stimulating effects, these subjective aspects of THC typically last 2-3 hours, whereas the half-life of CBD, which is more relaxing, is 9 hours.<ref name="MechoulamParker2002">{{cite journal|last1=Mechoulam|first1=Raphael|last2=Parker|first2=Linda A.|last3=Gallily|first3=Ruth|title=Cannabidiol: An Overview of Some Pharmacological Aspects|journal=The Journal of Clinical Pharmacology|volume=42|issue=S1|year=2002|pages=11S–19S|issn=00912700|doi=10.1002/j.1552-4604.2002.tb05998.x}}</ref> Thus, the first dose of cannabis after a period of abstinence will tend to be far more stimulating than subsequent doses, which must compete with the relaxing effects of previous doses. <p>Because the relaxation both persists much longer and shares many of the same pathways as the stimulation, regular ingestion of THC also leads to increased tolerance to its stimulating effects, but not to its relaxing effects.{{citation needed}}
 *'''[[Effect::Spontaneous bodily sensations]]''' - The "body high" of cannabis is extremely variable and depends entirely on the individual strain as well as dose and method of intake. In general, however, it can be described as a relatively pleasurable, sometimes warm, soft, intoxicating and all-encompassing sensation. At high dosages, it can cause some users to feel shaky or nerve-wracked.
 *'''[[Effect::Appetite enhancement]]''' - The feeling of increased appetite following the use of cannabis has been documented for hundreds of years<ref>{{cite book | veditors=((Mechoulam, R.)) | date= 1986 | title=Cannabinoids as therapeutic agents | publisher=CRC Press | isbn=9780849357725}}</ref> and is known colloquially as "the munchies". Cannabis has been shown in recent studies to stimulate the release of the hormone ghrelin which is normally released by the stomach when empty as a signal for the brain to search for food.<ref>Investigating the Neuroendocrine and Behavioral Controls of Cannabis-Induced Feeding Behavior. JF Davis, PQ Choi, J Kunze, P Wahl, Washington State University Pullman, WA, USA. Presented July 2018, Society for the Study of Ingestive Behavior, Bonita Springs, FL.</ref>
@@ Line 112: / Line 114: @@
 *'''[[Effect::Internal hallucination]]''' - The internal hallucinations of cannabis are extremely variable in their appearance depending on the dosage, tolerance and the individual's brain chemistry. They are very inconsistent and for some even rare but can be described as being fainter in appearance when compared to traditional [[psychedelics]] and do not seem to be as regularly composed of visual [[geometry]]. <p>The most common way in which they manifest themselves is through [[Lucid dreaming#Fully defined hypnagogia |hypnagogic]] scenarios. They are most common during high dosages in dark environments and can be comprehensively described through their [[Visual_effects:_Internal_hallucinations#Variations|variations]] as both lucid and delirious in believability, fixed in style, autonomous in controllability, equal in new experiences and memory replays in content and are primarily [[geometry]]-based in style.
 *'''[[Effect::Peripheral information misinterpretation]]''' - This very inconsistent effect tends to be mild and fleeting in contrast to other more powerful [[psychoactive substances]]. This effect rarely occurs on cannabis alone but when it does it is often in high dosages and/or when the individual has a low tolerance. It is more likely to manifest itself in certain environments as opposed to others and is more likely to happen if one has used stronger substances recently, typically within the past 24 to 36 hours.
+*'''[[Visual disconnection]]'''
 }}
 |{{effects/cognitive|
@@ Line 181: / Line 183: @@
 ==Strains and forms==
 ===Strains===
 [[File:Cannab2 new.png|thumb|right|200px|Types of cannabis]]
-'''Sativa''' and '''indica''' are the two major types of cannabis plants which can mix together to create hybrid strains. Each strain has its own range of effects on the body and mind, resulting in a wide range of medicinal benefits.
+'''Sativa''' and '''indica''' are the two major types of cannabis plants which can mix together to create hybrid strains. Because each strain has its own balance of cannabinoids, each strain has its own range of effects on the body and mind, resulting in a wide range of medicinal benefits.
 Indica plants typically grow short and wide compared to sativa plants which grow tall and thin. Indica plants are better suited for indoor growing because of their short growth and sativa plants are better suited for outdoor growing because some strains can reach over 25 ft. in height.
-The high produced from smoking indica bud is a strong physical "body high" that will make one sleepy or [[Sedation|sedated]] and provides a deep relaxation feeling compared to a sativa high, which is known to be more energetic and uplifting.
+Marijuana strains range from pure sativas to pure indicas with hybrid strains consisting of both indica and sativa (for example, 30% indica – 70% sativa, 50% – 50% combinations, or 80% indica – 20% sativa).
-Marijuana strains range from pure sativas to pure indicas with hybrid strains consisting of both indica and sativa (for example, 30% indica – 70% sativa, 50% – 50% combinations, or 80% indica – 20% sativa). Because sativa and indica buds have very different medicinal benefits and effects, certain strains can be targeted to better treat specific illnesses.
+====Hypothetical phytocannabinoiod differences between ''C. indica'' and ''C. sativa''====
+The effects of ''sativa'' may be used for a high, while ''indica'' may be used for its sedative effects. Both types are used as medical cannabis.
+*Cannabinoid ratios: On average, ''Cannabis indica'' has higher levels of [[Tetrahydrocannabinol|THC]] compared to [[Cannabidiol|CBD]], whereas ''Cannabis sativa'' has lower levels of THC to CBD.<ref name="Hillig">{{cite journal |author1=Karl W. Hillig |author2=Paul G. Mahlberg |year=2004 |title=A chemotaxonomic analysis of cannabinoid variation in ''Cannabis'' (Cannabaceae) |journal=[[American Journal of Botany]] |volume=91 |issue=6 |pages=966–975 |pmid=21653452 |doi=10.3732/ajb.91.6.966|doi-access=free }}</ref> However, huge variability exists within either species. A 2015 study shows the average THC content of the most popular herbal cannabis products in the Netherlands has decreased slightly since 2005.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Niesink RJ, Rigter S, Koeter MW, Brunt TM |title=Potency trends of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol, cannabidiol and cannabinol in cannabis in the Netherlands: 2005-15 |journal=Addiction |volume=110 |issue=12 |pages=1941–50 |year=2015 |doi=10.1111/add.13082 |pmid=26234170}}</ref>
+*Terpene ratios: Sativa ancestry is associated with farnesene and [ergamotene, while Indica ancestry is associated with myrcene, elemene, and sesquiterpene alcohols.
+=====Criticism=====
+In 2022, studies found that plants identified as "indica" or "sativa" based on common methods of differentiation (e.g. plant height or leaf shape) are not, in fact, chemically distinguishable, with many identified as "sativa" having cannabinoid ratios predicted of "indica" plants and vice versa. The authors have concluded that the chemical makeup of cannabis plants cannot be reliably determined by simple inspection of the plants' physical characteristics and that the "indica" and "sativa" labels are not informative as to the cannabinoids (or other chemical components) delivered.<ref>{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0267498| issn = 1932-6203| volume = 17| issue = 5| pages = –0267498| last1 = Smith| first1 = Christiana J.| last2 = Vergara| first2 = Daniela| last3 = Keegan| first3 = Brian| last4 = Jikomes| first4 = Nick| title = The phytochemical diversity of commercial Cannabis in the United States| journal = PLOS ONE| date = 2022| pmid = 35588111| pmc = 9119530| bibcode = 2022PLoSO..1767498S| doi-access = free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal| issn = 1664-462X| volume = 13| last1 = Murovec| first1 = Jana| last2 = Eržen| first2 = Jan Jurij| last3 = Flajšman| first3 = Marko| last4 = Vodnik| first4 = Dominik| title = Analysis of Morphological Traits, Cannabinoid Profiles, THCAS Gene Sequences, and Photosynthesis in Wide and Narrow Leaflet High-Cannabidiol Breeding Populations of Medical Cannabis| journal = Frontiers in Plant Science| date = 2022| page = 786161| doi = 10.3389/fpls.2022.786161| pmid = 35283868| pmc = 8907982| doi-access = free}}</ref>
 ===Forms===
@@ Line 212: / Line 222: @@
 *'''Edibles''' are cannabis added as an ingredient to one of a variety of foods.
 *'''Sublingual/buccal''' consumption typically involves the absorption of cannabinoids through the membranes inside the mouth (usually through a candy or tincture).
-*'''Tincture'''
+*'''Tinctures''' vary from edibles, usually only containing extracted (and potent) THC in liquid form. Tinctures can be taken sublingually, or orally.
 *'''Topical''' consumption typically involves the use of either a cream or lip balm containing cannabinoids absorbed through the skin.
 <center>
@@ Line 240: / Line 250: @@
 {{headerpanel|{{Template:Warning/Cannabis}}}}
+[[File:HarmCausedByDrugsTable.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|Table from the 2010 ISCD study ranking various drugs (legal and illegal) based on statements by drug-harm experts. Cannabis was found to be the eighth overall most dangerous drug.<ref name="Nutt_2010">{{cite journal | vauthors = Nutt DJ, King LA, Phillips LD | title = Drug harms in the UK: a multicriteria decision analysis | journal = Lancet | volume = 376 | issue = 9752 | pages = 1558–1565 | date = November 2010 | pmid = 21036393 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(10)61462-6 | s2cid = 5667719 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.690.1283 }}</ref>]]
 [[File:harmchart.png|thumb|right|300px|Radar plot showing relative physical harm, social harm, and dependence of cannabis<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Nutt, D.)), ((King, L. A.)), ((Saulsbury, W.)), ((Blakemore, C.)) | journal=The Lancet | title=Development of a rational scale to assess the harm of drugs of potential misuse | volume=369 | issue=9566 | pages=1047–1053 | date=24 March 2007 | url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140673607604644 | issn=0140-6736 | doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60464-4}}</ref>]]
@@ Line 249: / Line 260: @@
 Cannabis arteritis (CA) is a very rare peripheral vascular disease similar to Buerger's disease.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=El Omri |first1=N |last2=Eljaoudi |first2=R |last3=Mekouar |first3=F |last4=Jira |first4=M |last5=Sekkach |first5=Y |last6=Amezyane |first6=T |last7=Ghafir |first7=D |title=Cannabis arteritis. |journal=The Pan African medical journal |date=2017 |volume=26 |pages=53 |doi=10.11604/pamj.2017.26.53.11694 |pmid=28451030}}</ref>
+Cannabis use during brain development (including during pregnancy and adolescence) has been shown to interfere with a variety of neurobiological systems. Meta-analysis following ~5 weeks of abstinence reveals lasting changes in the central executive and default mode networks, which are involved in attention and working memory. The extent of these changes as risk factors is not entirely clear.<ref>Hurd, Yasmin L., et al. “Cannabis and the Developing Brain: Insights into Its Long-Lasting Effects.” ''Journal of Neuroscience'', Society for Neuroscience, 16 Oct. 2019, <nowiki>https://www.jneurosci.org/content/39/42/8250</nowiki>.</ref>
 ===Suicidality===
@@ Line 264: / Line 277: @@
 Individuals with a personal or family history of mental illness, particularly psychotic disorders like schizophrenia, should '''not''' use cannabis without the advice of a qualified mental health practitioner.
+===Trauma===
+[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannabis_use_and_traumaCannabis use and trauma] are linked, with trauma playing a role in encouraging both the use and potential misuse of cannabis.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hyman SM, Sinha R | title = Stress-related factors in cannabis use and misuse: implications for prevention and treatment | journal = Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment | volume = 36 | issue = 4 | pages = 400–13 | date = June 2009 | pmid = 19004601 | doi = 10.1016/j.jsat.2008.08.005 | pmc = 2696937 }}</ref> Conversely, cannabis use has been associated with the intensity of trauma and PTSD symptoms.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bonn-Miller MO, Vujanovic AA, Feldner MT, Bernstein A, Zvolensky MJ | title = Posttraumatic stress symptom severity predicts marijuana use coping motives among traumatic event-exposed marijuana users | journal = Journal of Traumatic Stress | volume = 20 | issue = 4 | pages = 577–86 | date = August 2007 | pmid = 17721963 | doi = 10.1002/jts.20243 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kevorkian S, Bonn-Miller MO, Belendiuk K, Carney DM, Roberson-Nay R, Berenz EC | title = Associations among trauma, posttraumatic stress disorder, cannabis use, and cannabis use disorder in a nationally representative epidemiologic sample | journal = Psychology of Addictive Behaviors | volume = 29 | issue = 3 | pages = 633–8 | date = September 2015 | pmid = 26415060 | doi = 10.1037/adb0000110 | pmc = 4699174 }}</ref> While evidence of efficacious use of cannabis is growing in novelty, it is not currently recommended.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Black N, Stockings E, Campbell G, Tran LT, Zagic D, Hall WD, Farrell M, Degenhardt L | display-authors = 6 | title = Cannabinoids for the treatment of mental disorders and symptoms of mental disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis | journal = The Lancet. Psychiatry | volume = 6 | issue = 12 | pages = 995–1010 | date = December 2019 | pmid = 31672337 | doi = 10.1016/s2215-0366(19)30401-8 | pmc = 6949116 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Dagan Y, Yager J | title = Cannabis and Complex Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Narrative Review With Considerations of Benefits and Harms | journal = The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease | volume = 208 | issue = 8 | pages = 619–627 | date = August 2020 | pmid = 32433200 | doi = 10.1097/nmd.0000000000001172 | s2cid = 218766009 }}</ref>
 ===Lethal dosage===
@@ Line 295: / Line 311: @@
 ==Legal status==
-[[File:Map-of-world-cannabis-laws.svg.png|alt=|center|thumb|801x801px|Map showing cannabis laws worldwide
+[[File:Map-of-world-cannabis-laws.svg.png|alt=|center|thumb|801x801px|Legal status of cannabis possession for recreational use
 {{legend|#0c50ff|Legal or essentially legal}}
 {{legend|#ff9946|Illegal but decriminalized}}
@@ Line 301: / Line 317: @@
 {{legend|#ff4646|Illegal}}
 {{legend|#e1e1e1|No information}}]]
+For table of countries, see Wikipedia's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Global_cannabis_legalization_table global cannabis legalization table].
 ===United Nations===
@@ Line 307: / Line 325: @@
 ====Rescheduling proposals====
 The World Health Organization (WHO) is calling for whole-plant marijuana, as well as cannabis resin, to be removed from Schedule IV—the most restrictive category of a 1961 drug convention signed by countries from around the world.<ref>{{Citation | vauthors=((Angell, T.)) | year=2019 | title=World Health Organization Recommends Reclassifying Marijuana Under International Treaties | url=https://www.marijuanamoment.net/read-the-world-health-organizations-marijuana-rescheduling-recommendations/}}</ref>
-'''Sweden:''' Tetrahydrocannabinol is a controlled substance under the 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances<ref name=":0" />. However, it has been approved for medical use by the Swedish Medical Products Agency<ref>Sativex SPC. Sativex is approved for use in Sweden, Denmark, Canada, New Zealand, Spain, Germany and other EU countries. </ref>, in the form of an oral solution sold under the brand name Sativex.<ref>{{Citation | title=Sativex - FASS Allmänhet | url=https://www.fass.se/LIF/product?userType=2&nplId=20101019000051}}</ref><ref>Sativex is prescribed for some adult patients with moderate to severe spasticity caused by multiple sclerosis, if other medications have proven to be insufficient in relieving the patient of symptoms.</ref>
 ==See also==
@@ Line 330: / Line 346: @@
 {{reflist|2}}
+[[Category:Psychoactive substance]]
 [[Category:Cannabis (genus)| ]]
 [[Category:Entheogen]]