Talk:Time distortion: Difference between revisions

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==Editors Note==

It is difficult to delineate 'time contraction' from 'time expansion' as authors of various papers seem to refer to this both as an increase in data content during the experience (time slowing down).<ref>Hill, R.M., Fischer, R. & Warshay, D. Experientia (1969) 25: 171. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01899105</ref><ref>Fischer, R. (1971). A cartography of the ecstatic and meditative states. Science, 174(4012), 897-904. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.174.4012.897</ref> (See ''On cannabis'' for time expansion meaning the same)

Even 'time acceleration' is contentious with this author claiming it to mean "living several lifetimes in an hour".<ref>Alyushin, A. (2010). Time scales of observation and ontological levels of reality. Axiomathes, 20(4), 439-460. http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.658.1586&rep=rep1&type=pdf</ref> --[[User:Graham|Graham]] ([[User talk:Graham|talk]]) 21:31, 15 January 2019 (CET)

==Neurological Analysis==

===Time dilation is hypothesized to be due to prediction errors===

"Another well-documented effect is known as ‘Time Dilation’ in which subjective time seems to slow down. A few minutes can subjectively be perceived as taking much longer. Here we postulate that subjective sensation of time is dependent on the amount of prediction error and possibly prediction updates the brain makes in order to minimize prediction error. This idea is based on Ulrich (2006) who discovered that the extent to which a stimulus can be predicted affects time perception, with unexpected stimuli perceived as longer. Similarly, Tse et al. (2004) found that a stimulus which stands out as different from all the others in a series appears to last longer than the other stimuli. An increase of prediction updates might cause the subjective feeling that more time has passed. This is similar to the common feeling that the first day of a journey to another country seems longer because it is filled with so many new experiences and so many prediction updates must happen in that day."<ref>Pink-Hashkes, S., van Rooij, I., & Kwisthout, J. (2017). Perception is in the details: a predictive coding account of the psychedelic phenomenon. In Proceedings of the 39th Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 2907-2912). https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/8c1a/65e3e005ba38d036244a2f2c343bedfb858a.pdf</ref>

===Microdosing LSD produces time dilation in suprasecond interval timing===

"One of the most methodologically rigorous studies to date in this domain observed that the serotonin agonist psilocybin, which has similar characteristics to LSD (Nichols 2016), produced under-reproduction of long suprasecond intervals (4000–5000 ms, but not 1500–2500 ms) (Wittmann et al. 2007). This result implicates serotonin in suprasecond human interval timing (see also Rammsayer 1989; Wackermann et al. 2008), potentially through 5-HT2A-mediated inhibition of dopamine (De Gregorio et al. 2016), which is believed to play an important mechanistic role in the perception of time (Allman and Meck 2012; Coull et al. 2011; Matell and Meck 2004; Rammsayer 1999; Soares et al. 2016; Terhune et al. 2016b; Vatakis and Allman 2015; Wiener et al. 2011) (for a review, see Coull et al. 2011). Given the role of interval timing across a range of psychological functions (Allman et al. 2014; Matthews and Meck 2016; Merchant et al. 2013), distorted timing under LSD may contribute to, or underlie, broader cognitive and perceptual effects of this drug. Therefore, elucidating its impact on interval timing is likely to inform neurochemical models of interval timing as well as our broader understanding of the effects of LSD on cognition and perception."

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"Weakening of hippocampal censorship function and overload competing of neuronal conceptualizations during information selection (Emrich et al. 1991) might be connected to cannabis-induced prolonged time estimation and intensity scaling. This metric reference promotes functions of a divergent cognitive strategy to overlook the Gestalten of musical holonomic symbolization on one hand and to lose track (Webster 2001) on the other, because convergent perception of sequential information parts is reduced. Mathew reported a cannabis-induced change of time sense CBF correlated with changes of cerebellum blood flow (Mathew et al. 1998). Cerebellum is associated with movement organization and time-keeping functions."<ref>Fachner, J. (2002). Topographic EEG changes accompanying cannabis-induced alteration of music perception—Cannabis as a hearing aid?. Journal of Cannabis Therapeutics, 2(2), 3-36. https://doi.org/10.1300/J175v02n02_02</ref>

"Comparing pre/post-THC-music, differences (p<0.025) were found in the right fronto-temporal cortex on θ, and on α in the left occipital cortex (IMAGE_11.GIF). During pre-THC-music listening, θ-% increased but decreased more in post-THC-music than during rest. In both temporal lobes, θ-amplitudes decreased during post-THC-music as well (IMAGE_10.GIF). Several studies noted observed music-induced changes in the right temporal fronto-temporal lobe, but with varying frequency ranges (26, 28-32). Even results of dichotic listening indicate changes in the right hemisphere (33, 34). Alterations in the temporal lobe EEG might represent changes in the hippocampus region as well. The hippocampus is rich in CBR (cannabinoid receptors) (35) and has a strong impact on memory functions and information selection. Weakening of hippocampal censorship function and overload competing of neuronal conceptualizations during information selection (36) might be connected to THC-induced prolonged time estimation and intensity scaling. THC-induced sensory information flooding might be processed in a more effective manner. Time expansion might induce a changed metric frame of reference (10), which leads to a different cognitive style of holonomic perception of memory retrieval (8). This might enable musicians to get temporarily increased insight into the ‘space between the notes’ (4) and to handle rhythmic patterns with more sophistication. A skilled and trained musician might benefit from “losing track” (8) during an improvisation and even while playing composed structures. This way of reducing irrelevant information offers spontaneous rearrangement of a piece, vivid performance with enlarged emotional intensity scaling, and the opening of improvisational possibilities by breaking down preconceptions and restructuring habituated listening and acting patterns. It seems that this change of auditory perspective in perceiving musical Gestalten (8) is mediated throughout an extension of auditory metric scaling during internal sound staging of music perceived. Listening to a record via headphones becomes a wider 3-dimensional moving soundscape, there seem to be “broader spatial relations between sound sources”(9). Expanded auditory metric units promote a frame of reference that seems to fit more precisely into an audio-visual way of perceiving acoustic relations. The drummer Robin Horn said (1), “it (pot) does create a larger vision, and if that’s the case, then it would apply to your instrument because the more you see, the more you can do.” Changed left occipital and right temporal EEG activity might represent a change of auditory perspective on musical acoustics. These issues have been discussed more intensively elsewhere (3, 10, 23)."<ref>Lehmann, A. C. TEMPORAL, OCCIPITAL AND PARIETAL EEG-BRAIN-MAPPING CHANGES IN PRE/POST-THC-MUSIC AND REST. http://epos.feserweb.de/books/k/klww003/pdfs/150_Fachner_Proc.pdf</ref>

===More evidence for endogenous neurochemical systems that regulate this effect===

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"The potential for SD[sensory deprivation] to produce alterations in consciousness (eg, greater visual imagery, hallucinations, time distortion, etc) is well recognized, but to date little is experimentally known about the ability for SO to do likewise. So far, with the experimental paradigm employed, we have found in fact that SO[sensory overload] may produce mild to profound distortions in reality testing or "psychedelic" effects in about 40% of the normal subjects. For purposes of illustration, several verbatim excerpts from interviews conducted immediately after exposure to SO are presented."<ref>Ludwig, A. M. (1971). Self-regulation of the sensory environment: Conceptual model and potential clinical applications. Archives of general psychiatry, 25(5), 413-418. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1971.01750170029006</ref>

===~~Time~~ effects analysis===

===Addicts continue to have temporal disturbances===

"The main goal of this study was to identify unusual, yet essential lived time experiences of people addicted to multiple drugs when in a sober state. Eight of the clients comprising the study sample experienced difficulties following time in an organized fashion and seven sought to accelerate it."<ref>Moskalewicz, M. (2016). Lived time disturbances of drug addiction therapy newcomers. A qualitative, field phenomenology case study at Monar-Markot Center in Poland. International journal of mental health and addiction, 14(6), 1023-1038. https://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11469-016-9680-4</ref>

===Neural substrates of time perception===

"In particular, highly impulsive person process time differently, i.e. they overestimate duration. Delays are experienced as too high of a cost, which becomes apparent in premature responses, a decreased tolerance to delays, poor foresight and the selection of relatively smaller rewards that can be consumed earlier (Rubia et al., 2009). (...) Drugdependent persons, who show stronger impulsive behavior in decision making, score significantly lower on a future orientation scale and their future perspective is less extended (Petry et al., 1998; Smart, 1968)."

"Cocaine and methamphetamine dependent patients participating in an inpatient alcohol and drug treatment program overestimated the duration of a 53 s interval, estimates that were mediated by higher self-reported impulsivity (Wittmann et al., 2007). Sleepdeprived subjects, compared to when they were well rested, discounted delayed rewards more strongly and under-produced as well as under-reproduced time intervals of multiple seconds duration (Reynolds and Schiffbauer, 2004). Children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) show an altered timing performance in several domains of time perception and at the same time show stronger discounting of delayed rewards (Barkley et al., 2001a; Smith et al., 2002), findings that have led some investigators to propose that impulsiveness can essentially be described as a deficit in temporal processing (Rubia et al., 2009)."

"While there is evidence suggesting that the processing of duration relies on the integrity of the whole brain (Coslett et al., 2009), specific neural models have been proposed for the perception of time in the milliseconds-toseconds range. Among these models are the coincidence detection model using oscillatory signals in cortico-striatal circuits (Matell and Meck, 2004), generalized magnitude processing for time, space and number in the right posterior parietal cortex (Bueti and Walsh, 2009), event timing and temporal prediction in the cerebellum (Ivry et al., 2002), working memory related integration in the right prefrontal cortex (Lewis and Miall, 2006), as well as the integration of selfand body processes in the anterior insula (Craig, 2008, 2009a). Other investigators assume memory-loss components as intrinsic features in theoretical models of time perception (Staddon, 2005; Wackermann and Ehm, 2006), or propose that the amount of energy spent during cognitive processing defines the subjective experience of duration (Eagleman and Pariyadath, 2009). In a recent event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study we reported that activation in the dorsal posterior insular cortex was linked to the perception of time in a duration reproduction task using intervals of 9 and 18 s (Wittmann et al., 2010b). Neural timeactivity curves showed that activation in the posterior insula increased linearly during the encoding interval of the task (i.e., during presentation of the tone that had to be temporally reproduced). A similar linear increase in activation was seen during the reproduction interval of the task in the anterior insula, inferior frontal and medial frontal cortices bilaterally. We suggested that this accumulator-like activity in the posterior insula during the encoding interval might signify an integration of body signals over time that could be used to represent duration." ''etc'' '''There is a lot of brain scans on the interpretation of time in this paper''' ''(also it links stimulant compulsive dosing to time compression cost analysis)''<ref>Wittmann, M., Simmons, A. N., Flagan, T., Lane, S. D., Wackermann, J., & Paulus, M. P. (2011). Neural substrates of time perception and impulsivity. Brain research, 1406, 43-58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2011.06.048</ref>

===Meditation lengthens the perception of time (with neuroimaging)===

"These findings are accompanied by neuroimaging studies showing that among many other regions the insular cortex is activated in time perception in the sub- as well as supra-second range (Bueti & Macaluso, 2011; Livesey, Wall, & Smith, 2007; Pollatos, Laubrock et al., 2014; Pollatos, Yeldesbay et al., 2014; for meta-analyses, see Lewis & Miall, 2003; Wiener, Turkeltaub, & Coslett, 2010). The insular cortex is discussed as the primary interoceptive cortex integrating body signals over time as received in the dorsal posterior insula (Craig, 2015). A representation of homeostatic feelings would be built in the anterior insula which generates an experience of the emotional self at a given moment (Craig, 2009b; Critchley, Wiens, Rotshtein, Öhman, & Dolan, 2004; Seth, 2013). The insular cortex as part of the saliency network is also discussed as being involved in cognitive control and attentional processes (Menon & Uddin, 2010). Thereafter, the same brain network would underlie attentional control, body awareness, and time perception. Accordingly, this adds to the idea that ‘‘attention to time’’ in essence means ‘‘attention to bodily signals’’ as implicated in the above integration of the attentional gate model within a neurophysiological framework.

In two studies, the posterior and anterior insula seemed specifically implicated in the experience of temporal intervals with several seconds’ duration (Wittmann, 2013). In a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study using temporal intervals of 3, 9 and 18 s, activation in the dorsal posterior insular cortex was linked to the temporal encoding of duration. Activation in this region increased with increasing interval length and peaked at the end of the interval (Wittmann, Simmons, Aron, & Paulus, 2010). When these intervals had to be reproduced as indicated by a button press, a similar linear increase of activation was seen in the anterior insula as well as regions of the frontal cortex which peaked shortly before the actual button press. A subsequent study replicated these findings with a different group of subjects (Wittmann et al., 2011). A single-case study with an epileptic patient with a focal lesion in the right anterior insula complements these neuroimaging findings (Monfort et al., 2014). The patient performed with severe distortions in the reproduction of multiple-second durations – an impairment that was not observed in the other tested epileptic patients without damage to the insular cortex. Moreover, neuroimaging studies in humans have repeatedly shown that the anterior insula, besides the striatum, is involved in explicit temporal prediction and expectations of future negative or positive events (Simmons et al., 2013; Tanaka et al., 2004; Tomasi, Wang, Studentsova, & Volkow, 2014; Wittmann, Lovero, Lane, & Paulus, 2010).

However, it is only fair to mention that regarding the question of localization and mechanisms – ‘‘where’’ and ‘‘how’’ in the brain time is represented – no agreement can be found in the literature; too many very different models exist (Grondin, 2010; Hancock & Block, 2012; Merchant, Harrington, & Meck, 2013; Wittmann & van Wassenhove, 2009). To some degree this variation of conceptualizations can be explained by relating them to different time scales (Buhusi & Meck, 2005; Wittmann, 2009, 2013) and to the nature of the timing processes being explicit or implicit (Coull & Nobre, 2008). Related to the sub-second time range, temporal processing may be distributed among different structures relying on modality-specific mechanisms rather than on a central timing region (Mauk & Buonomano, 2004). Moreover, since many different cognitive processes contribute to the perception of time such as attention, working memory, and decision making, this constant co-activation of all processes increases the difficulty in identifying the neural basis of time perception (Meck, 2005; Pouthas & Perbal, 2004; Wittmann, 2009)."

"The first studies testing time perception before vs. after mindfulness-oriented meditation practice are indicative of a prolongation of subjective duration, either after repeated sessions of mindfulness meditation over the course of weeks or directly after a meditation session (Berkovich-Ohana, Glicksohn, & Goldstein, 2011; Droit-Volet, Fanget, & Dambrun, 2015; Kramer, Weger, & Sharma, 2013; Sucala & David, 2013). These results can be discussed within the framework of an increased (more mindful) interoceptive awareness after extensive meditation experience or as transiently, i.e. state-induced, directly after a meditation session. It has been shown how self-reported regulatory aspects of interoception in daily life, i.e. the ability to regulate distress by attention to body sensations, are enhanced after extended contemplative practice regarding the ‘‘body scan’’ and ‘‘breath meditation’’ (Bornemann, Herbert, Mehling, & Singer, 2015). Also, the measurement of objective indices of body related judgment, i.e. tactile sensitivity and accuracy, reveal a better performance after body-centered meditation (Fox et al., 2012; Mirams, Poliakoff, Brown, & Lloyd, 2013). In general, individuals with long-term practice of mindfulness meditation are more sensitive to inner movements and impulses which are important for decision-making and action control (Jo, Hinterberger, Wittmann, & Schmidt, 2015; Jo, Wittmann, Borghardt, Hinterberger, & Schmidt, 2014). As elaborated above, an increased awareness of the (bodily) self would lead to a relative expansion of duration (Wittmann & Schmidt, 2014). In accordance with the aforementioned theoretical framework of self-regulation, which has shown to be accompanied with a prolongation of felt duration (Vohs & Schmeichel, 2003), mindfulness can be described as systematic mental training that fosters the development of meta-awareness of one self and the ability to effectively self-regulate behavior (Vago & Silbersweig, 2012)."<ref>Wittmann, M. (2015). Modulations of the experience of self and time. Consciousness and Cognition, 38, 172-181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2015.06.008</ref>

===Psychedelic time effects analysis===

[http://pharmrev.aspetjournals.org/content/68/2/264#sec-28 Nichols, D. E. (2016). Psychedelics. Pharmacological reviews, 68(2), 264-355.]

===Possible time reversal paper (Fig 8.)===

[https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnhum.2015.00346/full#h7 Restructuring consciousness –the psychedelic state in light of integrated information theory]

===How various substances influence our brain's receptors' (perception of time)===

[https://escholarship.org/uc/item/32g3w0rn Altered Perceptions: How Various Substances Influence Our Perception of Time]

===Chaos theory brainwave energy interpretation of time===

[http://www.dejanrakovicfund.org/knjige/1995-ecpd-consciousness.pdf#page=224 Brainwaves, neural networks, and ionic structures: Biophysical model for altered states of consciousness]

===‘Time’ differs in various domains, such as (i) physical time (e.g., clock time), (ii) biological time, such as the suprachiasmatic nucleus, and (iii) the perceptual rate of time.===

"The various forms of time are as follows (Vimal & Davia, 2008):

(A) Physical time: This is physical clock time. The Planck time is the unit of time in the system of natural units known as Planck units, which is the time it would take a photon traveling at the speed of light in a vacuum to cross a distance equal to the Planck length; it is about 5.39 x 10-16 seconds; however, it has not been measured yet. Images of electrons leaving atoms were produced by short pulses of laser light and recorded within 100 attoseconds (10-16 seconds); this is the shortest time measured so far.

(B) Biological time: Although all brain areas can be considered as biological clocks, the suprachiasmatic nucleus is the master molecular clock (Vimal, Pandey-Vimal, Vimal, Stopa, Renshaw, Vimal, & Harper, 2009); it is measured in msec.

(C) Perceptual rate of time: This is psychophysically measured in cycles per second (Hz) using luminance critical flicker frequency (CFF). It varies from 24 Hz in dim light and 60 Hz in bright light for normal humans to 80 Hz for Buddhist monks during meditation to 300 Hz for the honeybee. Color fusion frequencies are lower than CFF. Time can be integrated up to 160 msec for luminance stimuli, whereas integration time is longer for color stimuli. When we view a sinusoidally flickering light with temporal frequency (TF) above CFF, the associated experience is invariant in a sense that we do not perceive any flicker and light appears like steady light. In other words, if we start from TF = 0 Hz to CFF, (i) we perceive first steady light at 0 Hz, (ii) then flicker-perception increases with increase of TF to maximum value at peak-TF and (iii) then flicker-perception decrease as we increase TF and (iv) eventually reaches flicker-perception of zero at CFF. However, CFF depends on internal and external context, i.e., it would be possible to alter the predictions of the values of peak-TF and CFF, but the above 4 steps will occur. It would be interesting to perform experiments related to the estimations of time at the above 4 crucial points. Our prediction is that phenomenal time (defined below) will be different (perhaps faster) at peak-TF than that at TF >CFF. Note that we perceive maximum flicker at peak-TF and no flicker at CFF.

(D) Relative positions in time: These can be distinguished in two ways: (i) Each position is either Past, Present, or Future. This distinction varies continuously. (ii) Each position can be earlier or later than other positions. This distinction is permanent.

(E) Cyclic and linear nature of time: Time can be cyclic (day ↔ night) or linear (future → present → past).

(F) Subjective passage of time can be shorter or longer than physical time depending on the state of mind. Phenomenal time is defined as the subjective experience of time.2 It seems to speed up as we grow older, slow down in crisis, and slowing towards stopping, in some cases, such as at death, in near-death experience, meditation, and psychedelic drug use (Vimal & Davia, 2008). Furthermore, rather than focusing on the ability to detect change, insight into phenomenal time may come by focusing on the inability to detect change such as in CFF. Every phenomenal time may be an ‘occasion of experience’ or SE, for example, a Buddhist Monk who has CFF of 80 Hz may have SE every 12.5 msec, whereas a subject who has CFF of 60 Hz may have SE every 16.7 msec."<ref>Vimal, R. L., & Davia, C. J. (2010). Phenomenal Time and its Biological Correlates. Time & Consciousness, 1(5), 560-572. https://philpapers.org/archive/NIXTC#page=82</ref>

===Additional marijuana time distortion paper with elaboration===

[https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1970.01750030012003 Temporal disintegration and depersonalization during marihuana intoxication.]

===Nonspecific studies (just mentions time distortion for the substance)===

* [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2008.01.024 Journey through the K-hole: Phenomenological aspects of ketamine use]

* [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxlet.2014.08.011 Methoxetamine – a novel recreational drug with potent hallucinogenic properties]

* [https://doi.org/10.1007/7854_2016_459 Phenomenology, Structure, and Dynamic of Psychedelic States]

* [https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-2448-0_36 The Mushroom Psilocybin with Psychedelic Properties]

* [http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.583.1262&rep=rep1&type=pdf Phenomenology of N,N-Dimethyltryptamine Use: A Thematic Analysis]

* [https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2011.605661 Voice of the Psychonauts: Coping, Life Purpose, and Spirituality in Psychedelic Drug Users]

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* [https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(98)05021-1 Adverse effects of cannabis]

* [http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.607.5019&rep=rep1&type=pdf Socio-cultural transformation and drug dependence in youth]

===References===

==Trip report==

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It's one of the only experience reports I've seen with time becoming non-linear, alongside the specifics of some DMT trips. Some limited exploration with psychedelics and maybe dissociatives has given me a strong interest in the way our mind perceives time, but it seems the common range of experiences doesn't reveal insight as fascinating as this report with recollections of "moments" that don't follow each other but instead connect to multiple others, I hope I experience this someday -- yokohama

~~===References===~~

~~<references/>~~

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
+==Editors Note==
+It is difficult to delineate 'time contraction' from 'time expansion' as authors of various papers seem to refer to this both as an increase in data content during the experience (time slowing down).<ref>Hill, R.M., Fischer, R. & Warshay, D. Experientia (1969) 25: 171. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01899105</ref><ref>Fischer, R. (1971). A cartography of the ecstatic and meditative states. Science, 174(4012), 897-904. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.174.4012.897</ref> (See ''On cannabis'' for time expansion meaning the same)
+Even 'time acceleration' is contentious with this author claiming it to mean "living several lifetimes in an hour".<ref>Alyushin, A. (2010). Time scales of observation and ontological levels of reality. Axiomathes, 20(4), 439-460. http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.658.1586&rep=rep1&type=pdf</ref> --[[User:Graham|Graham]] ([[User talk:Graham|talk]]) 21:31, 15 January 2019 (CET)
 ==Neurological Analysis==
+===Time dilation is hypothesized to be due to prediction errors===
+"Another well-documented effect is known as ‘Time Dilation’ in which subjective time seems to slow down. A few minutes can subjectively be perceived as taking much longer. Here we postulate that subjective sensation of time is dependent on the amount of prediction error and possibly prediction updates the brain makes in order to minimize prediction error. This idea is based on Ulrich (2006) who discovered that the extent to which a stimulus can be predicted affects time perception, with unexpected stimuli perceived as longer. Similarly, Tse et al. (2004) found that a stimulus which stands out as different from all the others in a series appears to last longer than the other stimuli. An increase of prediction updates might cause the subjective feeling that more time has passed. This is similar to the common feeling that the first day of a journey to another country seems longer because it is filled with so many new experiences and so many prediction updates must happen in that day."<ref>Pink-Hashkes, S., van Rooij, I., & Kwisthout, J. (2017). Perception is in the details: a predictive coding account of the psychedelic phenomenon. In Proceedings of the 39th Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 2907-2912). https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/8c1a/65e3e005ba38d036244a2f2c343bedfb858a.pdf</ref>
 ===Microdosing LSD produces time dilation in suprasecond interval timing===
 "One of the most methodologically rigorous studies to date in this domain observed that the serotonin agonist psilocybin, which has similar characteristics to LSD (Nichols 2016), produced under-reproduction of long suprasecond intervals (4000–5000 ms, but not 1500–2500 ms) (Wittmann et al. 2007). This result implicates serotonin in suprasecond human interval timing (see also Rammsayer 1989; Wackermann et al. 2008), potentially through 5-HT2A-mediated inhibition of dopamine (De Gregorio et al. 2016), which is believed to play an important mechanistic role in the perception of time (Allman and Meck 2012; Coull et al. 2011; Matell and Meck 2004; Rammsayer 1999; Soares et al. 2016; Terhune et al. 2016b; Vatakis and Allman 2015; Wiener et al. 2011) (for a review, see Coull et al. 2011). Given the role of interval timing across a range of psychological functions (Allman et al. 2014; Matthews and Meck 2016; Merchant et al. 2013), distorted timing under LSD may contribute to, or underlie, broader cognitive and perceptual effects of this drug. Therefore, elucidating its impact on interval timing is likely to inform neurochemical models of interval timing as well as our broader understanding of the effects of LSD on cognition and perception."
@@ Line 30: / Line 38: @@
 "Weakening of hippocampal censorship function and overload competing of neuronal conceptualizations during information selection (Emrich et al. 1991) might be connected to cannabis-induced prolonged time estimation and intensity scaling. This metric reference promotes functions of a divergent cognitive strategy to overlook the Gestalten of musical holonomic symbolization on one hand and to lose track (Webster 2001) on the other, because convergent perception of sequential information parts is reduced. Mathew reported a cannabis-induced change of time sense CBF correlated with changes of cerebellum blood flow (Mathew et al. 1998). Cerebellum is associated with movement organization and time-keeping functions."<ref>Fachner, J. (2002). Topographic EEG changes accompanying cannabis-induced alteration of music perception—Cannabis as a hearing aid?. Journal of Cannabis Therapeutics, 2(2), 3-36. https://doi.org/10.1300/J175v02n02_02</ref>
+"Comparing pre/post-THC-music, differences (p<0.025) were found in the right fronto-temporal cortex on θ, and on α in the left occipital cortex (IMAGE_11.GIF). During pre-THC-music listening, θ-% increased but decreased more in post-THC-music than during rest. In both temporal lobes, θ-amplitudes decreased during post-THC-music as well (IMAGE_10.GIF). Several studies noted observed music-induced changes in the right temporal fronto-temporal lobe, but with varying frequency ranges (26, 28-32). Even results of dichotic listening indicate changes in the right hemisphere (33, 34). Alterations in the temporal lobe EEG might represent changes in the hippocampus region as well. The hippocampus is rich in CBR (cannabinoid receptors) (35) and has a strong impact on memory functions and information selection. Weakening of hippocampal censorship function and overload competing of neuronal conceptualizations during information selection (36) might be connected to THC-induced prolonged time estimation and intensity scaling. THC-induced sensory information flooding might be processed in a more effective manner. Time expansion might induce a changed metric frame of reference (10), which leads to a different cognitive style of holonomic perception of memory retrieval (8). This might enable musicians to get temporarily increased insight into the ‘space between the notes’ (4) and to handle rhythmic patterns with more sophistication. A skilled and trained musician might benefit from “losing track” (8) during an improvisation and even while playing composed structures. This way of reducing irrelevant information offers spontaneous rearrangement of a piece, vivid performance with enlarged emotional intensity scaling, and the opening of improvisational possibilities by breaking down preconceptions and restructuring habituated listening and acting patterns. It seems that this change of auditory perspective in perceiving musical Gestalten (8) is mediated throughout an extension of auditory metric scaling during internal sound staging of music perceived. Listening to a record via headphones becomes a wider 3-dimensional moving soundscape, there seem to be “broader spatial relations between sound sources”(9). Expanded auditory metric units promote a frame of reference that seems to fit more precisely into an audio-visual way of perceiving acoustic relations. The drummer Robin Horn said (1), “it (pot) does create a larger vision, and if that’s the case, then it would apply to your instrument because the more you see, the more you can do.” Changed left occipital and right temporal EEG activity might represent a change of auditory perspective on musical acoustics. These issues have been discussed more intensively elsewhere (3, 10, 23)."<ref>Lehmann, A. C. TEMPORAL, OCCIPITAL AND PARIETAL EEG-BRAIN-MAPPING CHANGES IN PRE/POST-THC-MUSIC AND REST. http://epos.feserweb.de/books/k/klww003/pdfs/150_Fachner_Proc.pdf</ref>
 ===More evidence for endogenous neurochemical systems that regulate this effect===
@@ Line 41: / Line 51: @@
 "The potential for SD[sensory deprivation] to produce alterations in consciousness (eg, greater visual imagery, hallucinations, time distortion, etc) is well recognized, but to date little is experimentally known about the ability for SO to do likewise. So far, with the experimental paradigm employed, we have found in fact that SO[sensory overload] may produce mild to profound distortions in reality testing or "psychedelic" effects in about 40% of the normal subjects. For purposes of illustration, several verbatim excerpts from interviews conducted immediately after exposure to SO are presented."<ref>Ludwig, A. M. (1971). Self-regulation of the sensory environment: Conceptual model and potential clinical applications. Archives of general psychiatry, 25(5), 413-418. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1971.01750170029006</ref>
-===Time effects analysis===
+===Addicts continue to have temporal disturbances===
+"The main goal of this study was to identify unusual, yet essential lived time experiences of people addicted to multiple drugs when in a sober state. Eight of the clients comprising the study sample experienced difficulties following time in an organized fashion and seven sought to accelerate it."<ref>Moskalewicz, M. (2016). Lived time disturbances of drug addiction therapy newcomers. A qualitative, field phenomenology case study at Monar-Markot Center in Poland. International journal of mental health and addiction, 14(6), 1023-1038. https://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11469-016-9680-4</ref>
+===Neural substrates of time perception===
+"In particular, highly impulsive person process time differently, i.e. they overestimate duration. Delays are experienced as too high of a cost, which becomes apparent in premature responses, a decreased tolerance to delays, poor foresight and the selection of relatively smaller rewards that can be consumed earlier (Rubia et al., 2009). (...) Drugdependent persons, who show stronger impulsive behavior in decision making, score significantly lower on a future orientation scale and their future perspective is less extended (Petry et al., 1998; Smart, 1968)."
+"Cocaine and methamphetamine dependent patients participating in an inpatient alcohol and drug treatment program overestimated the duration of a 53 s interval, estimates that were mediated by higher self-reported impulsivity (Wittmann et al., 2007). Sleepdeprived subjects, compared to when they were well rested, discounted delayed rewards more strongly and under-produced as well as under-reproduced time intervals of multiple seconds duration (Reynolds and Schiffbauer, 2004). Children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) show an altered timing performance in several domains of time perception and at the same time show stronger discounting of delayed rewards (Barkley et al., 2001a; Smith et al., 2002), findings that have led some investigators to propose that impulsiveness can essentially be described as a deficit in temporal processing (Rubia et al., 2009)."
+"While there is evidence suggesting that the processing of duration relies on the integrity of the whole brain (Coslett et al., 2009), specific neural models have been proposed for the perception of time in the milliseconds-toseconds range. Among these models are the coincidence detection model using oscillatory signals in cortico-striatal circuits (Matell and Meck, 2004), generalized magnitude processing for time, space and number in the right posterior parietal cortex (Bueti and Walsh, 2009), event timing and temporal prediction in the cerebellum (Ivry et al., 2002), working memory related integration in the right prefrontal cortex (Lewis and Miall, 2006), as well as the integration of selfand body processes in the anterior insula (Craig, 2008, 2009a). Other investigators assume memory-loss components as intrinsic features in theoretical models of time perception (Staddon, 2005; Wackermann and Ehm, 2006), or propose that the amount of energy spent during cognitive processing defines the subjective experience of duration (Eagleman and Pariyadath, 2009). In a recent event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study we reported that activation in the dorsal posterior insular cortex was linked to the perception of time in a duration reproduction task using intervals of 9 and 18 s (Wittmann et al., 2010b). Neural timeactivity curves showed that activation in the posterior insula increased linearly during the encoding interval of the task (i.e., during presentation of the tone that had to be temporally reproduced). A similar linear increase in activation was seen during the reproduction interval of the task in the anterior insula, inferior frontal and medial frontal cortices bilaterally. We suggested that this accumulator-like activity in the posterior insula during the encoding interval might signify an integration of body signals over time that could be used to represent duration." ''etc'' '''There is a lot of brain scans on the interpretation of time in this paper''' ''(also it links stimulant compulsive dosing to time compression cost analysis)''<ref>Wittmann, M., Simmons, A. N., Flagan, T., Lane, S. D., Wackermann, J., & Paulus, M. P. (2011). Neural substrates of time perception and impulsivity. Brain research, 1406, 43-58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2011.06.048</ref>
+===Meditation lengthens the perception of time (with neuroimaging)===
+"These findings are accompanied by neuroimaging studies showing that among many other regions the insular cortex is activated in time perception in the sub- as well as supra-second range (Bueti & Macaluso, 2011; Livesey, Wall, & Smith, 2007; Pollatos, Laubrock et al., 2014; Pollatos, Yeldesbay et al., 2014; for meta-analyses, see Lewis & Miall, 2003; Wiener, Turkeltaub, & Coslett, 2010). The insular cortex is discussed as the primary interoceptive cortex integrating body signals over time as received in the dorsal posterior insula (Craig, 2015). A representation of homeostatic feelings would be built in the anterior insula which generates an experience of the emotional self at a given moment (Craig, 2009b; Critchley, Wiens, Rotshtein, Öhman, & Dolan, 2004; Seth, 2013). The insular cortex as part of the saliency network is also discussed as being involved in cognitive control and attentional processes (Menon & Uddin, 2010). Thereafter, the same brain network would underlie attentional control, body awareness, and time perception. Accordingly, this adds to the idea that ‘‘attention to time’’ in essence means ‘‘attention to bodily signals’’ as implicated in the above integration of the attentional gate model within a neurophysiological framework.
+In two studies, the posterior and anterior insula seemed specifically implicated in the experience of temporal intervals with several seconds’ duration (Wittmann, 2013). In a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study using temporal intervals of 3, 9 and 18 s, activation in the dorsal posterior insular cortex was linked to the temporal encoding of duration. Activation in this region increased with increasing interval length and peaked at the end of the interval (Wittmann, Simmons, Aron, & Paulus, 2010). When these intervals had to be reproduced as indicated by a button press, a similar linear increase of activation was seen in the anterior insula as well as regions of the frontal cortex which peaked shortly before the actual button press. A subsequent study replicated these findings with a different group of subjects (Wittmann et al., 2011). A single-case study with an epileptic patient with a focal lesion in the right anterior insula complements these neuroimaging findings (Monfort et al., 2014). The patient performed with severe distortions in the reproduction of multiple-second durations – an impairment that was not observed in the other tested epileptic patients without damage to the insular cortex. Moreover, neuroimaging studies in humans have repeatedly shown that the anterior insula, besides the striatum, is involved in explicit temporal prediction and expectations of future negative or positive events (Simmons et al., 2013; Tanaka et al., 2004; Tomasi, Wang, Studentsova, & Volkow, 2014; Wittmann, Lovero, Lane, & Paulus, 2010).
+However, it is only fair to mention that regarding the question of localization and mechanisms – ‘‘where’’ and ‘‘how’’ in the brain time is represented – no agreement can be found in the literature; too many very different models exist (Grondin, 2010; Hancock & Block, 2012; Merchant, Harrington, & Meck, 2013; Wittmann & van Wassenhove, 2009). To some degree this variation of conceptualizations can be explained by relating them to different time scales (Buhusi & Meck, 2005; Wittmann, 2009, 2013) and to the nature of the timing processes being explicit or implicit (Coull & Nobre, 2008). Related to the sub-second time range, temporal processing may be distributed among different structures relying on modality-specific mechanisms rather than on a central timing region (Mauk & Buonomano, 2004). Moreover, since many different cognitive processes contribute to the perception of time such as attention, working memory, and decision making, this constant co-activation of all processes increases the difficulty in identifying the neural basis of time perception (Meck, 2005; Pouthas & Perbal, 2004; Wittmann, 2009)."
+"The first studies testing time perception before vs. after mindfulness-oriented meditation practice are indicative of a prolongation of subjective duration, either after repeated sessions of mindfulness meditation over the course of weeks or directly after a meditation session (Berkovich-Ohana, Glicksohn, & Goldstein, 2011; Droit-Volet, Fanget, & Dambrun, 2015; Kramer, Weger, & Sharma, 2013; Sucala & David, 2013). These results can be discussed within the framework of an increased (more mindful) interoceptive awareness after extensive meditation experience or as transiently, i.e. state-induced, directly after a meditation session. It has been shown how self-reported regulatory aspects of interoception in daily life, i.e. the ability to regulate distress by attention to body sensations, are enhanced after extended contemplative practice regarding the ‘‘body scan’’ and ‘‘breath meditation’’ (Bornemann, Herbert, Mehling, & Singer, 2015). Also, the measurement of objective indices of body related judgment, i.e. tactile sensitivity and accuracy, reveal a better performance after body-centered meditation (Fox et al., 2012; Mirams, Poliakoff, Brown, & Lloyd, 2013). In general, individuals with long-term practice of mindfulness meditation are more sensitive to inner movements and impulses which are important for decision-making and action control (Jo, Hinterberger, Wittmann, & Schmidt, 2015; Jo, Wittmann, Borghardt, Hinterberger, & Schmidt, 2014). As elaborated above, an increased awareness of the (bodily) self would lead to a relative expansion of duration (Wittmann & Schmidt, 2014). In accordance with the aforementioned theoretical framework of self-regulation, which has shown to be accompanied with a prolongation of felt duration (Vohs & Schmeichel, 2003), mindfulness can be described as systematic mental training that fosters the development of meta-awareness of one self and the ability to effectively self-regulate behavior (Vago & Silbersweig, 2012)."<ref>Wittmann, M. (2015). Modulations of the experience of self and time. Consciousness and Cognition, 38, 172-181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2015.06.008</ref>
+===Psychedelic time effects analysis===
 [http://pharmrev.aspetjournals.org/content/68/2/264#sec-28 Nichols, D. E. (2016). Psychedelics. Pharmacological reviews, 68(2), 264-355.]
 ===Possible time reversal paper (Fig 8.)===
 [https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnhum.2015.00346/full#h7 Restructuring consciousness –the psychedelic state in light of integrated information theory]
+===How various substances influence our brain's receptors' (perception of time)===
+[https://escholarship.org/uc/item/32g3w0rn Altered Perceptions: How Various Substances Influence Our Perception of Time]
+===Chaos theory brainwave energy interpretation of time===
+[http://www.dejanrakovicfund.org/knjige/1995-ecpd-consciousness.pdf#page=224 Brainwaves, neural networks, and ionic structures: Biophysical model for altered states of consciousness]
+===‘Time’ differs in various domains, such as (i) physical time (e.g., clock time), (ii) biological time, such as the suprachiasmatic nucleus, and (iii) the perceptual rate of time.===
+"The various forms of time are as follows (Vimal & Davia, 2008):
+(A) Physical time: This is physical clock time. The Planck time is the unit of time in the system of natural units known as Planck units, which is the time it would take a photon traveling at the speed of light in a vacuum to cross a distance equal to the Planck length; it is about 5.39 x 10-16 seconds; however, it has not been measured yet. Images of electrons leaving atoms were produced by short pulses of laser light and recorded within 100 attoseconds (10-16 seconds); this is the shortest time measured so far.
+(B) Biological time: Although all brain areas can be considered as biological clocks, the suprachiasmatic nucleus is the master molecular clock (Vimal, Pandey-Vimal, Vimal, Stopa, Renshaw, Vimal, & Harper, 2009); it is measured in msec.
+(C) Perceptual rate of time: This is psychophysically measured in cycles per second (Hz) using luminance critical flicker frequency (CFF). It varies from 24 Hz in dim light and 60 Hz in bright light for normal humans to 80 Hz for Buddhist monks during meditation to 300 Hz for the honeybee. Color fusion frequencies are lower than CFF. Time can be integrated up to 160 msec for luminance stimuli, whereas integration time is longer for color stimuli. When we view a sinusoidally flickering light with temporal frequency (TF) above CFF, the associated experience is invariant in a sense that we do not perceive any flicker and light appears like steady light. In other words, if we start from TF = 0 Hz to CFF, (i) we perceive first steady light at 0 Hz, (ii) then flicker-perception increases with increase of TF to maximum value at peak-TF and (iii) then flicker-perception decrease as we increase TF and (iv) eventually reaches flicker-perception of zero at CFF. However, CFF depends on internal and external context, i.e., it would be possible to alter the predictions of the values of peak-TF and CFF, but the above 4 steps will occur. It would be interesting to perform experiments related to the estimations of time at the above 4 crucial points. Our prediction is that phenomenal time (defined below) will be different (perhaps faster) at peak-TF than that at TF >CFF. Note that we perceive maximum flicker at peak-TF and no flicker at CFF.
+(D) Relative positions in time: These can be distinguished in two ways: (i) Each position is either Past, Present, or Future. This distinction varies continuously. (ii) Each position can be earlier or later than other positions. This distinction is permanent.
+(E) Cyclic and linear nature of time: Time can be cyclic (day ↔ night) or linear (future → present → past).
+(F) Subjective passage of time can be shorter or longer than physical time depending on the state of mind. Phenomenal time is defined as the subjective experience of time.2 It seems to speed up as we grow older, slow down in crisis, and slowing towards stopping, in some cases, such as at death, in near-death experience, meditation, and psychedelic drug use (Vimal & Davia, 2008). Furthermore, rather than focusing on the ability to detect change, insight into phenomenal time may come by focusing on the inability to detect change such as in CFF. Every phenomenal time may be an ‘occasion of experience’ or SE, for example, a Buddhist Monk who has CFF of 80 Hz may have SE every 12.5 msec, whereas a subject who has CFF of 60 Hz may have SE every 16.7 msec."<ref>Vimal, R. L., & Davia, C. J. (2010). Phenomenal Time and its Biological Correlates. Time & Consciousness, 1(5), 560-572. https://philpapers.org/archive/NIXTC#page=82</ref>
+===Additional marijuana time distortion paper with elaboration===
+[https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1970.01750030012003 Temporal disintegration and depersonalization during marihuana intoxication.]
 ===Nonspecific studies (just mentions time distortion for the substance)===
 * [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2008.01.024 Journey through the K-hole: Phenomenological aspects of ketamine use]
 * [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxlet.2014.08.011 Methoxetamine – a novel recreational drug with potent hallucinogenic properties]
+* [https://doi.org/10.1007/7854_2016_459 Phenomenology, Structure, and Dynamic of Psychedelic States]
+* [https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-2448-0_36 The Mushroom Psilocybin with Psychedelic Properties]
 * [http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.583.1262&rep=rep1&type=pdf Phenomenology of N,N-Dimethyltryptamine Use: A Thematic Analysis]
 * [https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2011.605661 Voice of the Psychonauts: Coping, Life Purpose, and Spirituality in Psychedelic Drug Users]
@@ Line 58: / Line 113: @@
 * [https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(98)05021-1 Adverse effects of cannabis]
 * [http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.607.5019&rep=rep1&type=pdf Socio-cultural transformation and drug dependence in youth]
+===References===
+<references/>
 ==Trip report==
@@ Line 64: / Line 122: @@
 It's one of the only experience reports I've seen with time becoming non-linear, alongside the specifics of some DMT trips. Some limited exploration with psychedelics and maybe dissociatives has given me a strong interest in the way our mind perceives time, but it seems the common range of experiences doesn't reveal insight as fascinating as this report with recollections of "moments" that don't follow each other but instead connect to multiple others, I hope I experience this someday -- yokohama
-===References===
-<references/>