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Depression reduction: Difference between revisions
>Graham Depression reduction technical science review (incl. the novel subjective state of Euthymia) |
>Graham m rework hierarchy |
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'''Depression reduction''' is the experience of minimizing the symptoms associated with [[depression]] and low mood states. It is distinct from effects such as cognitive euphoria, as it does not simply elevate the user's mood but instead results in a sense of stable emotional well-being. | '''Depression reduction''' is the experience of minimizing the symptoms associated with [[depression]] and low mood states. It is distinct from effects such as [[cognitive euphoria]], as it does not simply elevate the user's mood but instead results in a sense of stable emotional well-being. | ||
Depression reduction most commonly occurs with adequate nutritional intake.<ref name="BenderHagan2017">{{cite journal|last1=Bender|first1=Ansley|last2=Hagan|first2=Kelsey E.|last3=Kingston|first3=Neal|title=The association of folate and depression: A meta-analysis|journal=Journal of Psychiatric Research|volume=95|year=2017|pages=9–18|issn=00223956|doi=10.1016/j.jpsychires.2017.07.019}}</ref><ref name="Spedding2014">{{cite journal|last1=Spedding|first1=Simon|title=Vitamin D and Depression: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Comparing Studies with and without Biological Flaws|journal=Nutrients|volume=6|issue=4|year=2014|pages=1501–1518|issn=2072-6643|doi=10.3390/nu6041501}}</ref><ref name="SubletteEllis2011">{{cite journal|last1=Sublette|first1=M. Elizabeth|last2=Ellis|first2=Steven P.|last3=Geant|first3=Amy L.|last4=Mann|first4=J. John|title=Meta-Analysis of the Effects of Eicosapentaenoic Acid (EPA) in Clinical Trials in Depression|journal=The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry|volume=72|issue=12|year=2011|pages=1577–1584|issn=0160-6689|doi=10.4088/JCP.10m06634}}</ref><ref name="HuangWang2016">{{cite journal|last1=Huang|first1=Ruixue|last2=Wang|first2=Ke|last3=Hu|first3=Jianan|title=Effect of Probiotics on Depression: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials|journal=Nutrients|volume=8|issue=8|year=2016|pages=483|issn=2072-6643|doi=10.3390/nu8080483}}</ref><ref name="NgKoh2017">{{cite journal|last1=Ng|first1=Qin Xiang|last2=Koh|first2=Shawn Shao Hong|last3=Chan|first3=Hwei Wuen|last4=Ho|first4=Collin Yih Xian|title=Clinical Use of Curcumin in Depression: A Meta-Analysis|journal=Journal of the American Medical Directors Association|volume=18|issue=6|year=2017|pages=503–508|issn=15258610|doi=10.1016/j.jamda.2016.12.071}}</ref> Severe depression is effectively reduced with conventional antidepressants; although in mild to moderate depression, SSRI's and tricyclic antidepressants appear (on average) to be either only minimally helpful or completely ineffective.<ref name="FournierDeRubeis2010">{{cite journal|last1=Fournier|first1=Jay C.|last2=DeRubeis|first2=Robert J.|last3=Hollon|first3=Steven D.|last4=Dimidjian|first4=Sona|last5=Amsterdam|first5=Jay D.|last6=Shelton|first6=Richard C.|last7=Fawcett|first7=Jan|title=Antidepressant Drug Effects and Depression Severity|journal=JAMA|volume=303|issue=1|year=2010|pages=47|issn=0098-7484|doi=10.1001/jama.2009.1943}}</ref> However, depression reduction can also occur under the influence of hormone replacement therapies<ref name="ZarroufArtz2009">{{cite journal|last1=Zarrouf|first1=Fahd Aziz|last2=Artz|first2=Steven|last3=Griffith|first3=James|last4=Sirbu|first4=Cristian|last5=Kommor|first5=Martin|title=Testosterone and Depression|journal=Journal of Psychiatric Practice|volume=15|issue=4|year=2009|pages=289–305|issn=1538-1145|doi=10.1097/01.pra.0000358315.88931.fc}}</ref> and modafinil.<ref name="RockRoiser2013">{{cite journal|last1=Rock|first1=P. L.|last2=Roiser|first2=J. P.|last3=Riedel|first3=W. J.|last4=Blackwell|first4=A. D.|title=Cognitive impairment in depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis|journal=Psychological Medicine|volume=44|issue=10|year=2013|pages=2029–2040|issn=0033-2917|doi=10.1017/S0033291713002535}}</ref> | Depression reduction most commonly occurs with adequate nutritional intake.<ref name="BenderHagan2017">{{cite journal|last1=Bender|first1=Ansley|last2=Hagan|first2=Kelsey E.|last3=Kingston|first3=Neal|title=The association of folate and depression: A meta-analysis|journal=Journal of Psychiatric Research|volume=95|year=2017|pages=9–18|issn=00223956|doi=10.1016/j.jpsychires.2017.07.019}}</ref><ref name="Spedding2014">{{cite journal|last1=Spedding|first1=Simon|title=Vitamin D and Depression: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Comparing Studies with and without Biological Flaws|journal=Nutrients|volume=6|issue=4|year=2014|pages=1501–1518|issn=2072-6643|doi=10.3390/nu6041501}}</ref><ref name="SubletteEllis2011">{{cite journal|last1=Sublette|first1=M. Elizabeth|last2=Ellis|first2=Steven P.|last3=Geant|first3=Amy L.|last4=Mann|first4=J. John|title=Meta-Analysis of the Effects of Eicosapentaenoic Acid (EPA) in Clinical Trials in Depression|journal=The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry|volume=72|issue=12|year=2011|pages=1577–1584|issn=0160-6689|doi=10.4088/JCP.10m06634}}</ref><ref name="HuangWang2016">{{cite journal|last1=Huang|first1=Ruixue|last2=Wang|first2=Ke|last3=Hu|first3=Jianan|title=Effect of Probiotics on Depression: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials|journal=Nutrients|volume=8|issue=8|year=2016|pages=483|issn=2072-6643|doi=10.3390/nu8080483}}</ref><ref name="NgKoh2017">{{cite journal|last1=Ng|first1=Qin Xiang|last2=Koh|first2=Shawn Shao Hong|last3=Chan|first3=Hwei Wuen|last4=Ho|first4=Collin Yih Xian|title=Clinical Use of Curcumin in Depression: A Meta-Analysis|journal=Journal of the American Medical Directors Association|volume=18|issue=6|year=2017|pages=503–508|issn=15258610|doi=10.1016/j.jamda.2016.12.071}}</ref> Severe depression is effectively reduced with conventional antidepressants; although in mild to moderate depression, SSRI's and tricyclic antidepressants appear (on average) to be either only minimally helpful or completely ineffective.<ref name="FournierDeRubeis2010">{{cite journal|last1=Fournier|first1=Jay C.|last2=DeRubeis|first2=Robert J.|last3=Hollon|first3=Steven D.|last4=Dimidjian|first4=Sona|last5=Amsterdam|first5=Jay D.|last6=Shelton|first6=Richard C.|last7=Fawcett|first7=Jan|title=Antidepressant Drug Effects and Depression Severity|journal=JAMA|volume=303|issue=1|year=2010|pages=47|issn=0098-7484|doi=10.1001/jama.2009.1943}}</ref> However, depression reduction can also occur under the influence of hormone replacement therapies<ref name="ZarroufArtz2009">{{cite journal|last1=Zarrouf|first1=Fahd Aziz|last2=Artz|first2=Steven|last3=Griffith|first3=James|last4=Sirbu|first4=Cristian|last5=Kommor|first5=Martin|title=Testosterone and Depression|journal=Journal of Psychiatric Practice|volume=15|issue=4|year=2009|pages=289–305|issn=1538-1145|doi=10.1097/01.pra.0000358315.88931.fc}}</ref> and modafinil.<ref name="RockRoiser2013">{{cite journal|last1=Rock|first1=P. L.|last2=Roiser|first2=J. P.|last3=Riedel|first3=W. J.|last4=Blackwell|first4=A. D.|title=Cognitive impairment in depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis|journal=Psychological Medicine|volume=44|issue=10|year=2013|pages=2029–2040|issn=0033-2917|doi=10.1017/S0033291713002535}}</ref> | ||
== Euthymia == | === Euthymia === | ||
'''Euthymia''' (semantically the opposite of [[depression|dysthymia]] is a long-lasting and self-sustaining experience of stable emotional well-being.<ref name="FavaBech2015">{{cite journal|last1=Fava|first1=Giovanni A.|last2=Bech|first2=Per|title=The Concept of Euthymia|journal=Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics|volume=85|issue=1|year=2015|pages=1–5|issn=0033-3190|doi=10.1159/000441244}}</ref> This state is characterized by: | '''Euthymia''' (semantically the opposite of [[depression|dysthymia]] is a long-lasting and self-sustaining experience of stable emotional well-being.<ref name="FavaBech2015">{{cite journal|last1=Fava|first1=Giovanni A.|last2=Bech|first2=Per|title=The Concept of Euthymia|journal=Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics|volume=85|issue=1|year=2015|pages=1–5|issn=0033-3190|doi=10.1159/000441244}}</ref> This state is characterized by: | ||
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* Being resistant to stress (resilience and anxiety or frustration tolerance). | * Being resistant to stress (resilience and anxiety or frustration tolerance). | ||
This is unlikely to be an isolated effect component but rather the result of combining an appropriate environment with other coinciding effects such as [[rejuvenation]], [[introspection]], [[personal bias suppression]], and [[spirituality enhancement]]. | This is unlikely to be an isolated effect component but rather the result of combining an appropriate environment with other coinciding effects such as [[rejuvenation]], [[introspection]], [[personal bias suppression]], and [[spirituality enhancement]]. It may also stem from the direct neurological changes that occur as a result of a substances’ pharmacological action. | ||
Euthymia most commonly occurs at varying levels of efficacy under the influence of a range of different substances, primarily psychedelics in combination with psychotherapy,<ref name="Galvão-CoelhoMarx2021">{{cite journal|last1=Galvão-Coelho|first1=Nicole L.|last2=Marx|first2=Wolfgang|last3=Gonzalez|first3=Maria|last4=Sinclair|first4=Justin|last5=de Manincor|first5=Michael|last6=Perkins|first6=Daniel|last7=Sarris|first7=Jerome|title=Classic serotonergic psychedelics for mood and depressive symptoms: a meta-analysis of mood disorder patients and healthy participants|journal=Psychopharmacology|volume=238|issue=2|year=2021|pages=341–354|issn=0033-3158|doi=10.1007/s00213-020-05719-1}}</ref><ref name="LuomaChwyl2020">{{cite journal|last1=Luoma|first1=Jason B.|last2=Chwyl|first2=Christina|last3=Bathje|first3=Geoff J.|last4=Davis|first4=Alan K.|last5=Lancelotta|first5=Rafael|title=A Meta-Analysis of Placebo-Controlled Trials of Psychedelic-Assisted Therapy|journal=Journal of Psychoactive Drugs|volume=52|issue=4|year=2020|pages=289–299|issn=0279-1072|doi=10.1080/02791072.2020.1769878}}</ref> or dissociatives.<ref name="RyanMarta2014">{{cite journal|last1=Ryan|first1=Wesley C.|last2=Marta|first2=Cole J.|last3=Koek|first3=Ralph J. |title=Ketamine and Depression: A Review|journal=International Journal of Transpersonal Studies|volume=33|issue=2|year=2014|pages=40–74|issn=13210122|doi=10.24972/ijts.2014.33.2.40}}</ref> However, it can also occur throughout the course of prescribed psychiatric medications and under the influence of certain entactogens. | Euthymia most commonly occurs at varying levels of efficacy under the influence of a range of different substances, primarily psychedelics in combination with psychotherapy,<ref name="Galvão-CoelhoMarx2021">{{cite journal|last1=Galvão-Coelho|first1=Nicole L.|last2=Marx|first2=Wolfgang|last3=Gonzalez|first3=Maria|last4=Sinclair|first4=Justin|last5=de Manincor|first5=Michael|last6=Perkins|first6=Daniel|last7=Sarris|first7=Jerome|title=Classic serotonergic psychedelics for mood and depressive symptoms: a meta-analysis of mood disorder patients and healthy participants|journal=Psychopharmacology|volume=238|issue=2|year=2021|pages=341–354|issn=0033-3158|doi=10.1007/s00213-020-05719-1}}</ref><ref name="LuomaChwyl2020">{{cite journal|last1=Luoma|first1=Jason B.|last2=Chwyl|first2=Christina|last3=Bathje|first3=Geoff J.|last4=Davis|first4=Alan K.|last5=Lancelotta|first5=Rafael|title=A Meta-Analysis of Placebo-Controlled Trials of Psychedelic-Assisted Therapy|journal=Journal of Psychoactive Drugs|volume=52|issue=4|year=2020|pages=289–299|issn=0279-1072|doi=10.1080/02791072.2020.1769878}}</ref> or dissociatives.<ref name="RyanMarta2014">{{cite journal|last1=Ryan|first1=Wesley C.|last2=Marta|first2=Cole J.|last3=Koek|first3=Ralph J. |title=Ketamine and Depression: A Review|journal=International Journal of Transpersonal Studies|volume=33|issue=2|year=2014|pages=40–74|issn=13210122|doi=10.24972/ijts.2014.33.2.40}}</ref> However, it can also occur throughout the course of prescribed psychiatric medications and under the influence of certain entactogens. | ||
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== Analysis == | === Analysis === | ||
==== Immediate Relief ==== | |||
''Scheduling activities'' is a behavioral treatment for depression that appears as effective as other psychological or pharmacological treatments.<ref name="Cuijpersvan Straten2007">{{cite journal|last1=Cuijpers|first1=Pim|last2=van Straten|first2=Annemieke|last3=Warmerdam|first3=Lisanne|title=Behavioral activation treatments of depression: A meta-analysis|journal=Clinical Psychology Review|volume=27|issue=3|year=2007|pages=318–326|issn=02727358|doi=10.1016/j.cpr.2006.11.001}}</ref> There is a significant relationship between mood and the number of pleasant activities engaged in. Depressed individuals find fewer activities pleasant, engage in pleasant activities less frequently, and obtain less positive reinforcement. | |||
''Exercise'' is an evidence-based treatment for depression.<ref name="CraftLanders1998">{{cite journal|last1=Craft|first1=Lynette L.|last2=Landers|first2=Daniel M.|title=The Effect of Exercise on Clinical Depression and Depression Resulting from Mental Illness: A Meta-Analysis|journal=Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology|volume=20|issue=4|year=1998|pages=339–357|issn=0895-2779|doi=10.1123/jsep.20.4.339}}</ref><ref name="KvamKleppe2016">{{cite journal|last1=Kvam|first1=Siri|last2=Kleppe|first2=Catrine Lykkedrang|last3=Nordhus|first3=Inger Hilde|last4=Hovland|first4=Anders|title=Exercise as a treatment for depression: A meta-analysis|journal=Journal of Affective Disorders|volume=202|year=2016|pages=67–86|issn=01650327|doi=10.1016/j.jad.2016.03.063}}</ref><ref name="SchuchVancampfort2016">{{cite journal|last1=Schuch|first1=Felipe B.|last2=Vancampfort|first2=Davy|last3=Richards|first3=Justin|last4=Rosenbaum|first4=Simon|last5=Ward|first5=Philip B.|last6=Stubbs|first6=Brendon|title=Exercise as a treatment for depression: A meta-analysis adjusting for publication bias|journal=Journal of Psychiatric Research|volume=77|year=2016|pages=42–51|issn=00223956|doi=10.1016/j.jpsychires.2016.02.023}}</ref><ref name="CramerLauche2013">{{cite journal|last1=Cramer|first1=Holger|last2=Lauche|first2=Romy|last3=Langhorst|first3=Jost|last4=Dobos|first4=Gustav|title=YOGA FOR DEPRESSION: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW AND META-ANALYSIS|journal=Depression and Anxiety|volume=30|issue=11|year=2013|pages=1068–1083|issn=10914269|doi=10.1002/da.22166}}</ref><ref name="JosefssonLindwall2014">{{cite journal|last1=Josefsson|first1=T.|last2=Lindwall|first2=M.|last3=Archer|first3=T.|title=Physical exercise intervention in depressive disorders: Meta-analysis and systematic review|journal=Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports|volume=24|issue=2|year=2014|pages=259–272|issn=09057188|doi=10.1111/sms.12050}}</ref> It also has the advantage of preventing the increased risk of drug-drug interactions. Moderate to heavy exercise of any type (including yoga) appears as effective, and do not significantly differ from, other pure forms of depression treatment such as psychotherapy or pharmacological treatment. Large changes in fitness do not appear necessary either. | |||
<br/> | |||
==== Long-term ==== | |||
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy is an effective treatment for adult depression.<ref> Cuijpers, P., Berking, M., Andersson, G., Quigley, L., Kleiboer, A., & Dobson, K. S. (2013). A meta-analysis of cognitive-behavioural therapy for adult depression, alone and in comparison with other treatments. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 58(7), 376-385. (15) | https://doi.org/10.1177/F070674371305800702 </ref> There are no large differences in efficacy between major psychotherapies for mild to moderate depression.<ref name="Cuijpersvan Straten2008">{{cite journal|last1=Cuijpers|first1=Pim|last2=van Straten|first2=Annemieke|last3=Andersson|first3=Gerhard|last4=van Oppen|first4=Patricia|title=Psychotherapy for depression in adults: A meta-analysis of comparative outcome studies.|journal=Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology|volume=76|issue=6|year=2008|pages=909–922|issn=1939-2117|doi=10.1037/a0013075}}</ref> There is also a large body of evidence supporting computerized care, and psychoeducational interventions.<ref name="Cuijpers1997">{{cite journal|last1=Cuijpers|first1=P.|title=Bibliotherapy in unipolar depression: A meta-analysis|journal=Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry|volume=28|issue=2|year=1997|pages=139–147|issn=00057916|doi=10.1016/S0005-7916(97)00005-0}}</ref><ref>Donker, T., Griffiths, K. M., Cuijpers, P., & Christensen, H. (2009). Psychoeducation for depression, anxiety and psychological distress: a meta-analysis. BMC medicine, 7(1), 1-9. (18) | https://dx.doi.org/10.1186/F1741-7015-7-79</ref><ref name="RichardsRichardson2012">{{cite journal|last1=Richards|first1=Derek|last2=Richardson|first2=Thomas|title=Computer-based psychological treatments for depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis|journal=Clinical Psychology Review|volume=32|issue=4|year=2012|pages=329–342|issn=02727358|doi=10.1016/j.cpr.2012.02.004}}</ref><ref name="SpekCuijpers2006">{{cite journal|last1=Spek|first1=Viola|last2=Cuijpers|first2=Pim|last3=Nyklícek|first3=Ivan|last4=Riper|first4=Heleen|last5=Keyzer|first5=Jules|last6=Pop|first6=Victor|title=Internet-based cognitive behaviour therapy for symptoms of depression and anxiety: a meta-analysis|journal=Psychological Medicine|volume=37|issue=03|year=2006|pages=319|issn=0033-2917|doi=10.1017/S0033291706008944}}</ref><ref name="AnderssonCuijpers2009">{{cite journal|last1=Andersson|first1=Gerhard|last2=Cuijpers|first2=Pim|title=Internet-Based and Other Computerized Psychological Treatments for Adult Depression: A Meta-Analysis|journal=Cognitive Behaviour Therapy|volume=38|issue=4|year=2009|pages=196–205|issn=1650-6073|doi=10.1080/16506070903318960}}</ref> | |||
For patients with mild or moderate depression in natural settings, antidepressant relapse rate is high. Behavioral therapy may prevent relapses in the long-term.<ref>Gloaguen, V., Cottraux, J., Cucherat, M., & Blackburn, I. M. (1998). A meta-analysis of the effects of cognitive therapy in depressed patients. Journal of affective disorders, 49(1), 59-72. (22) | https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-0327(97)00199-7 </ref> | |||
==== Psychedelic Psychotherapy ==== | |||
A 2021 meta analysis examined 12 double-blind randomized controlled trials for classical psychedelics treating depressive symptoms.<ref name="Galvão-CoelhoMarx2021"/> A single-dose ''in combination with a psychotherapy treatment program'' created moderate to large reductions in negative mood symptoms. This reduction remained consistent at several intervals throughout the examined time-frame of 3 hours to 60 days; there were simply not enough randomized clinical trials to extend their timeframe. This effect was present in both healthy and disordered patients. | A 2021 meta analysis examined 12 double-blind randomized controlled trials for classical psychedelics treating depressive symptoms.<ref name="Galvão-CoelhoMarx2021"/> A single-dose ''in combination with a psychotherapy treatment program'' created moderate to large reductions in negative mood symptoms. This reduction remained consistent at several intervals throughout the examined time-frame of 3 hours to 60 days; there were simply not enough randomized clinical trials to extend their timeframe. This effect was present in both healthy and disordered patients. | ||
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Psychotherapy with 1-3 doses of a classical psychedelic greatly outperforms current pharmacological standards in regards to producing a depression reduction all while having minimal to no adverse effects. The benefits of only needing a single dose over the course of 6 months as opposed to a daily administration of a substance incurring larger side effects and not producing desired effects until the 2-4 week mark appear obvious. | Psychotherapy with 1-3 doses of a classical psychedelic greatly outperforms current pharmacological standards in regards to producing a depression reduction all while having minimal to no adverse effects. The benefits of only needing a single dose over the course of 6 months as opposed to a daily administration of a substance incurring larger side effects and not producing desired effects until the 2-4 week mark appear obvious. | ||
==== Ketamine and its isomers ==== | |||
=== Ketamine and its isomers === | |||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|+ Warning | |+ Warning | ||
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Ketamine offers a (dose-dependent) large immediate depression reduction for 30-50% of patients; its effect-sizes become moderate to small by day 7.<ref name="XuHackett2016">{{cite journal|last1=Xu|first1=Ying|last2=Hackett|first2=Maree|last3=Carter|first3=Gregory|last4=Loo|first4=Colleen|last5=Gálvez|first5=Verònica|last6=Glozier|first6=Nick|last7=Glue|first7=Paul|last8=Lapidus|first8=Kyle|last9=McGirr|first9=Alexander|last10=Somogyi|first10=Andrew A.|last11=Mitchell|first11=Philip B.|last12=Rodgers|first12=Anthony|title=Effects of Low-Dose and Very Low-Dose Ketamine among Patients with Major Depression: a Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis|journal=International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology|volume=19|issue=4|year=2016|pages=pyv124|issn=1461-1457|doi=10.1093/ijnp/pyv124}}</ref><ref name="LeeDella Selva2015">{{cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Ellen E.|last2=Della Selva|first2=Megan P.|last3=Liu|first3=Anson|last4=Himelhoch|first4=Seth|title=Ketamine as a novel treatment for major depressive disorder and bipolar depression: a systematic review and quantitative meta-analysis|journal=General Hospital Psychiatry|volume=37|issue=2|year=2015|pages=178–184|issn=01638343|doi=10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2015.01.003}}</ref><ref name="PennybakerNiciu2017">{{cite journal|last1=Pennybaker|first1=Steven J.|last2=Niciu|first2=Mark J.|last3=Luckenbaugh|first3=David A.|last4=Zarate|first4=Carlos A.|title=Symptomatology and predictors of antidepressant efficacy in extended responders to a single ketamine infusion|journal=Journal of Affective Disorders|volume=208|year=2017|pages=560–566|issn=01650327|doi=10.1016/j.jad.2016.10.026}}</ref> Weekly to biweekly dosing maintains a statistically significant depression reduction measured at Day 28 and repeated administration has resulted in cases of euthymia.<ref name="RyanMarta2014">{{cite journal|last1=Ryan|first1=Wesley C.|last2=Marta|first2=Cole J.|last3=Koek|first3=Ralph J. |title=Ketamine and Depression: A Review|journal=International Journal of Transpersonal Studies|volume=33|issue=2|year=2014|pages=40–74|issn=13210122|doi=10.24972/ijts.2014.33.2.40}}</ref><ref name="BozymskiCrouse2019">{{cite journal|last1=Bozymski|first1=Kevin M.|last2=Crouse|first2=Ericka L.|last3=Titus-Lay|first3=Erika N.|last4=Ott|first4=Carol A.|last5=Nofziger|first5=Jill L.|last6=Kirkwood|first6=Cynthia K.|title=Esketamine: A Novel Option for Treatment-Resistant Depression|journal=Annals of Pharmacotherapy|volume=54|issue=6|year=2019|pages=567–576|issn=1060-0280|doi=10.1177/1060028019892644}}</ref> A family history of alcohol-use-disorder in a first-degree relative is associated with an improved antidepressive response, and a reduction of adverse mental effects such as [[cognitive dysphoria|dysphoria]]. Its antidepressant properties may also stem more generally from dissociatives' [[novelty enhancement|novelty]] and/or [[immersion enhancement|immersion enhancements]]. | Ketamine offers a (dose-dependent) large immediate depression reduction for 30-50% of patients; its effect-sizes become moderate to small by day 7.<ref name="XuHackett2016">{{cite journal|last1=Xu|first1=Ying|last2=Hackett|first2=Maree|last3=Carter|first3=Gregory|last4=Loo|first4=Colleen|last5=Gálvez|first5=Verònica|last6=Glozier|first6=Nick|last7=Glue|first7=Paul|last8=Lapidus|first8=Kyle|last9=McGirr|first9=Alexander|last10=Somogyi|first10=Andrew A.|last11=Mitchell|first11=Philip B.|last12=Rodgers|first12=Anthony|title=Effects of Low-Dose and Very Low-Dose Ketamine among Patients with Major Depression: a Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis|journal=International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology|volume=19|issue=4|year=2016|pages=pyv124|issn=1461-1457|doi=10.1093/ijnp/pyv124}}</ref><ref name="LeeDella Selva2015">{{cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Ellen E.|last2=Della Selva|first2=Megan P.|last3=Liu|first3=Anson|last4=Himelhoch|first4=Seth|title=Ketamine as a novel treatment for major depressive disorder and bipolar depression: a systematic review and quantitative meta-analysis|journal=General Hospital Psychiatry|volume=37|issue=2|year=2015|pages=178–184|issn=01638343|doi=10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2015.01.003}}</ref><ref name="PennybakerNiciu2017">{{cite journal|last1=Pennybaker|first1=Steven J.|last2=Niciu|first2=Mark J.|last3=Luckenbaugh|first3=David A.|last4=Zarate|first4=Carlos A.|title=Symptomatology and predictors of antidepressant efficacy in extended responders to a single ketamine infusion|journal=Journal of Affective Disorders|volume=208|year=2017|pages=560–566|issn=01650327|doi=10.1016/j.jad.2016.10.026}}</ref> Weekly to biweekly dosing maintains a statistically significant depression reduction measured at Day 28 and repeated administration has resulted in cases of euthymia.<ref name="RyanMarta2014">{{cite journal|last1=Ryan|first1=Wesley C.|last2=Marta|first2=Cole J.|last3=Koek|first3=Ralph J. |title=Ketamine and Depression: A Review|journal=International Journal of Transpersonal Studies|volume=33|issue=2|year=2014|pages=40–74|issn=13210122|doi=10.24972/ijts.2014.33.2.40}}</ref><ref name="BozymskiCrouse2019">{{cite journal|last1=Bozymski|first1=Kevin M.|last2=Crouse|first2=Ericka L.|last3=Titus-Lay|first3=Erika N.|last4=Ott|first4=Carol A.|last5=Nofziger|first5=Jill L.|last6=Kirkwood|first6=Cynthia K.|title=Esketamine: A Novel Option for Treatment-Resistant Depression|journal=Annals of Pharmacotherapy|volume=54|issue=6|year=2019|pages=567–576|issn=1060-0280|doi=10.1177/1060028019892644}}</ref> A family history of alcohol-use-disorder in a first-degree relative is associated with an improved antidepressive response, and a reduction of adverse mental effects such as [[cognitive dysphoria|dysphoria]]. Its antidepressant properties may also stem more generally from dissociatives' [[novelty enhancement|novelty]] and/or [[immersion enhancement|immersion enhancements]]. | ||
===References=== | ===References=== | ||
<references /> | <references /> | ||
[[Category:Effect]] | |||
[[Category:Cognitive]] | |||