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'''Psilocybin mushrooms''' (also known as '''magic mushrooms''', '''psychedelic mushrooms''', and '''shrooms''') are a family of [[psychoactive]] fungi that contain psilocybin, a [[psychoactive class::psychedelic]] substance of the [[chemical class::tryptamine]] class. The mechanism of action is not fully known, although [[agonist|binding activity]] at [[serotonin]] [[receptors]] is thought to be involved. | '''Psilocybin mushrooms''' (also known as '''magic mushrooms''', '''psychedelic mushrooms''', and '''shrooms''') are a family of [[psychoactive]] fungi that contain psilocybin, a [[psychoactive class::psychedelic]] substance of the [[chemical class::tryptamine]] class. The mechanism of action is not fully known, although [[agonist|binding activity]] at [[serotonin]] [[receptors]] is thought to be involved. | ||
Psilocybin mushrooms occur on all continents and have been taxonomically classified into over 200 species, the most potent of which belong to the genus ''Psilocybe''.<ref>Guzmán, G., Allen, J. W., | Psilocybin mushrooms occur on all continents and have been taxonomically classified into over 200 species, the most potent of which belong to the genus ''Psilocybe''.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Guzmán, G.)), ((Allen, J. W.)), ((Gartz, J.)) | journal=Ann. Mus. Civ. Rovereto | title=A worldwide geographical distribution of the neurotropic fungi, an analysis and discussion | volume=14 | pages=189–280 | date= 1998 | url=https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.534.1328}}</ref> Based on imagery found in prehistoric rock art, they are thought to have been used by various human cultures since before recorded history. | ||
After being introduced to the Western world in the 1950s, they generated substantial public interest.<ref name="Tyls" /> Along with LSD, they were incorporated into the youth counterculture movement of the 1960s. Widespread usage of psychedelics provoked a societal backlash, and they were prohibited in 1970.{{citation needed}} | After being introduced to the Western world in the 1950s, they generated substantial public interest.<ref name="Tyls" /> Along with LSD, they were incorporated into the youth counterculture movement of the 1960s. Widespread usage of psychedelics provoked a societal backlash, and they were prohibited in 1970.{{citation needed}} | ||
Today, they are among the most widely used psychedelic substances (partly due to the ease of personal cultivation and harvesting). As a part of the so-called "psychedelic renaissance",<ref>Sessa, B. | Today, they are among the most widely used psychedelic substances (partly due to the ease of personal cultivation and harvesting). As a part of the so-called "psychedelic renaissance",<ref>{{cite book | vauthors=((Sessa, B.)) | date= 2012 | title=The psychedelic renaissance: reassassing the role of psychedelic drugs in 21st century psychiatry and society | publisher=Muswell Hill Press | isbn=9781908995001}}</ref> they are currently being investigated in the treatment of a number of ailments including [[anxiety]], [[depression]], addiction, and other mental disorders.<ref name="Tyls" /> | ||
[[Subjective effects]] include [[visual geometry]], [[hallucinatory states]], [[time distortion]], [[introspection|enhanced introspection]], [[conceptual thinking]], [[euphoria]], and [[ego loss]]. The intensity and duration of effects can vary greatly depending on factors such as species and batch, which can complicate standardized dosing information (see [[Psilocybin mushrooms#Dosage and preparation|this section]]). They are often described to evoke [[entheogen|entheogenic]], mystical-like, or [[transpersonal]] experiences that may facilitate self-reflection and personal growth. | [[Subjective effects]] include [[visual geometry]], [[hallucinatory states]], [[time distortion]], [[introspection|enhanced introspection]], [[conceptual thinking]], [[euphoria]], and [[ego loss]]. The intensity and duration of effects can vary greatly depending on factors such as species and batch, which can complicate standardized dosing information (see [[Psilocybin mushrooms#Dosage and preparation|this section]]). They are often described to evoke [[entheogen|entheogenic]], mystical-like, or [[transpersonal]] experiences that may facilitate self-reflection and personal growth. | ||
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In distinction to psychedelics like [[LSD]], [[mescaline]], and [[2C-B]], which may be described as "stimulating", "cerebral", and "bright", psilocybin mushrooms are typically described as having an "earthy", "subliminal", or "dream-like" quality. They also are reported to produce slightly more [[emotion enhancement]], time distortion and ego loss than the aforementioned substances, as well as more [[nausea]], [[confusion]], and [[sedation]]. | In distinction to psychedelics like [[LSD]], [[mescaline]], and [[2C-B]], which may be described as "stimulating", "cerebral", and "bright", psilocybin mushrooms are typically described as having an "earthy", "subliminal", or "dream-like" quality. They also are reported to produce slightly more [[emotion enhancement]], time distortion and ego loss than the aforementioned substances, as well as more [[nausea]], [[confusion]], and [[sedation]]. | ||
Unlike most highly prohibited substances, psilocybin mushrooms have low abuse potential and are neither addictive nor physiologically toxic.<ref>Lüscher, C., | Unlike most highly prohibited substances, psilocybin mushrooms have low abuse potential and are neither addictive nor physiologically toxic.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Lüscher, C.)), ((Ungless, M. A.)) | journal=PLoS Medicine | title=The Mechanistic Classification of Addictive Drugs | volume=3 | issue=11 | pages=e437 | date=14 November 2006 | url=https://dx.plos.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.0030437 | issn=1549-1676 | doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0030437}}</ref> However, adverse psychological reactions such as severe [[anxiety]], [[paranoia]], [[delusions]] and [[psychosis]] are always possible, particularly among individuals predisposed to mental disorders.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Strassman, R. J.)) | journal=The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease | title=ADVERSE REACTIONS TO PSYCHEDELIC DRUGS. A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE: | volume=172 | issue=10 | pages=577–595 | date= October 1984 | url=http://journals.lww.com/00005053-198410000-00001 | issn=0022-3018 | doi=10.1097/00005053-198410000-00001}}</ref> | ||
It is highly advised to use [[harm reduction practices]] if using this substance. | It is highly advised to use [[harm reduction practices]] if using this substance. | ||
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[[File:Tassilin'Ajjer MushroomMan.jpg|thumb|250px|Cave art in Tassili n'Ajjer, Algeria (look at the shoulders and knees)]] | [[File:Tassilin'Ajjer MushroomMan.jpg|thumb|250px|Cave art in Tassili n'Ajjer, Algeria (look at the shoulders and knees)]] | ||
A growing body of evidence suggests that psychoactive mushrooms have been used by humans in religious ceremonies for thousands of years. In Mesoamerica, they have been consumed in ritual ceremonies for 3000 years.<ref name="Tyls">Tylš, F., Páleníček, T., | A growing body of evidence suggests that psychoactive mushrooms have been used by humans in religious ceremonies for thousands of years. In Mesoamerica, they have been consumed in ritual ceremonies for 3000 years.<ref name="Tyls">{{cite journal | vauthors=((Tylš, F.)), ((Páleníček, T.)), ((Horáček, J.)) | journal=European Neuropsychopharmacology | title=Psilocybin – Summary of knowledge and new perspectives | volume=24 | issue=3 | pages=342–356 | date= March 2014 | url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0924977X13003519 | issn=0924977X | doi=10.1016/j.euroneuro.2013.12.006}}</ref> | ||
For example, murals dated 9000 to 7000 BCE found in the Sahara desert in southeast Algeria depict horned beings dressed as dancers holding mushroom-like objects.<ref>Samorini G. | For example, murals dated 9000 to 7000 BCE found in the Sahara desert in southeast Algeria depict horned beings dressed as dancers holding mushroom-like objects.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Samorini, G.)) | journal=Integration | title=The oldest representations of hallucinogenic mushrooms in the world (Sahara Desert, 9000-7000 BP) | volume=2 | issue=3 | pages=69–78 | date= 1992}}</ref> | ||
6,000-year-old pictographs discovered near the Spanish town of Villar del Humo illustrate several mushrooms that have been tentatively identified as ''Psilocybe hispanica'', a hallucinogenic species native to the area.<ref>Akers | 6,000-year-old pictographs discovered near the Spanish town of Villar del Humo illustrate several mushrooms that have been tentatively identified as ''Psilocybe hispanica'', a hallucinogenic species native to the area.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Akers, B. P.)), ((Ruiz, J. F.)), ((Piper, A.)), ((Ruck, C. A. P.)) | journal=Economic Botany | title=A Prehistoric Mural in Spain Depicting Neurotropic Psilocybe Mushrooms? | volume=65 | issue=2 | pages=121–128 | date= June 2011 | url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s12231-011-9152-5 | issn=0013-0001 | doi=10.1007/s12231-011-9152-5}}</ref> | ||
Archaeological artifacts from Mexico have also been interpreted by some scholars as evidence for ritual and ceremonial usage of psychoactive mushrooms in the Mayan and Aztec cultures of Mesoamerica.{{citation needed}} | Archaeological artifacts from Mexico have also been interpreted by some scholars as evidence for ritual and ceremonial usage of psychoactive mushrooms in the Mayan and Aztec cultures of Mesoamerica.{{citation needed}} | ||
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Following the arrival of Spanish explorers to the New World in the 16th century, chroniclers reported the use of mushrooms by the natives for ceremonial and religious purposes. | Following the arrival of Spanish explorers to the New World in the 16th century, chroniclers reported the use of mushrooms by the natives for ceremonial and religious purposes. | ||
Accounts describe mushrooms being eaten in festivities for the accession of emperors and the celebration of successful business trips by merchants.<ref>Hofmann A. | Accounts describe mushrooms being eaten in festivities for the accession of emperors and the celebration of successful business trips by merchants.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors=((Hofmann, A.)) | date= 1980 | chapter=The Mexican relatives of LSD | title=LSD, my problem child | publisher=McGraw-Hill | isbn=9780070293250}}</ref> | ||
After the defeat of the Aztecs, the Spanish forbade traditional religious practices and rituals that they considered "pagan idolatry", including ceremonial mushroom use. For the next four centuries, the Indians of Mesoamerica hid their use of entheogens from the Spanish authorities.{{citation needed}} | After the defeat of the Aztecs, the Spanish forbade traditional religious practices and rituals that they considered "pagan idolatry", including ceremonial mushroom use. For the next four centuries, the Indians of Mesoamerica hid their use of entheogens from the Spanish authorities.{{citation needed}} | ||
American banker and amateur ethnomycologist R. Gordon Wasson studied the ritual use of psychoactive mushrooms by the native population of a Mazatec village in Mexico. In 1957, Wasson described the psychedelic visions that he experienced during these rituals in "Seeking the Magic Mushroom", an article published in ''Life'' magazine.<ref>Wasson | American banker and amateur ethnomycologist R. Gordon Wasson studied the ritual use of psychoactive mushrooms by the native population of a Mazatec village in Mexico. In 1957, Wasson described the psychedelic visions that he experienced during these rituals in "Seeking the Magic Mushroom", an article published in ''Life'' magazine.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Wasson, R. G.)) | journal=Life | title=Seeking the Magic Mushroom | volume=42 | issue=19 | pages=100–120 | date= 1957 | issn=0024-3019}}</ref> | ||
Later that year, they were accompanied on a follow-up expedition by French mycologist Roger Heim, who identified several of the mushrooms as Psilocybe species.<ref>Heim R. ( | Later that year, they were accompanied on a follow-up expedition by French mycologist Roger Heim, who identified several of the mushrooms as Psilocybe species.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Heim, R.)) | journal=Revue de Mycologie (in French) | title=Notes préliminaires sur les agarics hallucinogènes du Mexique (Preliminary notes on the hallucination-producing agarics of Mexico) | volume=22 | issue=1 | pages=58–79 | date= 1957}}</ref> | ||
Heim cultivated the mushrooms in France, and sent samples for analysis to [[Albert Hofmann]], a chemist employed by the Swiss pharmaceutical company Sandoz (now Novartis). Hofmann, who had in 1938 created LSD, led a research group that isolated and identified the psychoactive compounds from ''Psilocybe mexicana''.<ref>Hofmann A, Heim R, Brack A, Kobel H ( | Heim cultivated the mushrooms in France, and sent samples for analysis to [[Albert Hofmann]], a chemist employed by the Swiss pharmaceutical company Sandoz (now Novartis). Hofmann, who had in 1938 created LSD, led a research group that isolated and identified the psychoactive compounds from ''Psilocybe mexicana''.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Hofmann, A.)), ((Heim, R.)), ((Brack, A.)), ((Kobel, H.)) | journal=Experientia (in German) | title=Psilocybin, ein psychotroper Wirkstoff aus dem mexikanischen Rauschpilz Psilocybe mexicana Heim (Psilocybin, a psychotropic drug from the Mexican magic mushroom Psilocybe mexicana Heim) | volume=14 | issue=3 | pages=107–109 | date= March 1958 | url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/BF02159243 | issn=0014-4754 | doi=10.1007/BF02159243}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Hofmann, A.)), ((Heim, R.)), ((Brack, A.)), ((Kobel, H.)), ((Frey, A.)), ((Ott, H.)), ((Petrzilka, Th.)), ((Troxler, F.)) | journal=Helvetica Chimica Acta (in German) | title=Psilocybin und Psilocin, zwei psychotrope Wirkstoffe aus mexikanischen Rauschpilzen (Psilocybin and psilocin, two psychotropic substances in Mexican magic mushrooms) | volume=42 | issue=5 | pages=1557–1572 | date= 1959 | url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/hlca.19590420518 | issn=0018-019X | doi=10.1002/hlca.19590420518}}</ref> | ||
He and his colleagues later synthesized a number of compounds chemically related to the naturally occurring psilocybin, to see how structural changes would affect psychoactivity. | He and his colleagues later synthesized a number of compounds chemically related to the naturally occurring psilocybin, to see how structural changes would affect psychoactivity. | ||
These included [[4-HO-DET]] and [[4-AcO-DMT]]. Sandoz marketed and sold pure psilocybin under the name "Indocybin" to clinicians worldwide without any reports of serious complications.<ref>Marley G. | These included [[4-HO-DET]] and [[4-AcO-DMT]]. Sandoz marketed and sold pure psilocybin under the name "Indocybin" to clinicians worldwide without any reports of serious complications.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors=((Marley, G.)) | date=9 September 2010 | chapter=Psilocybin: gateway to the soul or just a good high? | title=Chanterelle Dreams, Amanita Nightmares: The Love, Lore, and Mystique of Mushrooms | publisher=Chelsea Green Publishing | pages=166 | isbn=9781603582803}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Passie, T.)), ((Seifert, J.)), ((Schneider, U.)), ((Emrich, H. M.)) | journal=Addiction Biology | title=The pharmacology of psilocybin | volume=7 | issue=4 | pages=357–364 | date= October 2002 | url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1080/1355621021000005937 | issn=13556215 | doi=10.1080/1355621021000005937}}</ref> | ||
In the early 1960s, Harvard University became a testing ground for psilocybin via the efforts of Timothy Leary and his associates, Ralph Metzner and Richard Alpert. Leary obtained synthesized psilocybin from Hofmann through Sandoz. Some studies, such as the Concord Prison Experiment, found promising results for psilocybin's utility in clinical psychiatry.<ref>Leary T, Litwin | In the early 1960s, Harvard University became a testing ground for psilocybin via the efforts of Timothy Leary and his associates, Ralph Metzner and Richard Alpert, under a project known as the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Psilocybin_Project Harvard Psilocybin Project]. Leary obtained synthesized psilocybin from Hofmann through Sandoz. Some studies, such as the Concord Prison Experiment, found promising results for psilocybin's utility in clinical psychiatry.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Leary, T.)), ((Litwin, G. H.)), ((Metzner, R.)) | journal=The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease | title=REACTIONS TO PSILOCYBJN ADMINISTERED IN A SUPPORTIVE ENVIRONMENT: | volume=137 | issue=6 | pages=561–573 | date= December 1963 | url=http://journals.lww.com/00005053-196312000-00007 | issn=0022-3018 | doi=10.1097/00005053-196312000-00007}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Timothy, L.)), ((Ralph, M.)), ((Madison, P.)), ((Gunther, W.)), ((Ralph, S.)), ((Sara, K.)) | journal=Psychotherapy: Theory, Research & Practice | title=A new behavior change program using psilocybin. | volume=2 | issue=2 | pages=61–72 | date= 1965 | url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/h0088612 | issn=0033-3204 | doi=10.1037/h0088612}}.</ref> | ||
Leary and Alpert's zealous advocacy for widespread hallucinogen use led to a well-publicized termination from Harvard. In response to concerns about the increase in unauthorized use of psychedelic substances by the general public, psychedelics like psilocybin began to receive negative press and faced increasingly restrictive laws. | Leary and Alpert's zealous advocacy for widespread hallucinogen use led to a well-publicized termination from Harvard. In response to concerns about the increase in unauthorized use of psychedelic substances by the general public, psychedelics like psilocybin began to receive negative press and faced increasingly restrictive laws. | ||
In the United States, laws were passed in 1966 that prohibited the production, trade, or ingestion of hallucinogenic substances. Sandoz stopped producing LSD and psilocybin the same year.<ref>Matsushima Y, Eguchi F, Kikukawa T, Matsuda T | In the United States, laws were passed in 1966 that prohibited the production, trade, or ingestion of hallucinogenic substances. Sandoz stopped producing LSD and psilocybin the same year.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Matsushima, Y.)), ((Eguchi, F.)), ((Kikukawa, T.)), ((Matsuda, T.)) | journal=Inflammation and Regeneration | title=Historical overview of psychoactive mushrooms | volume=29 | issue=1 | pages=47–58 | date= 2009 | url=http://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/inflammregen/29/1/29_1_47/_article | issn=1880-9693 | doi=10.2492/inflammregen.29.47}}</ref> Further backlash against LSD usage swept psilocybin along with it into the Schedule I category of illicit substances in 1970. Subsequent restrictions on the use of these substances in human research made funding for such projects difficult to obtain, and scientists who worked with psychedelic drugs faced being "professionally marginalized".<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Griffiths, R. R.)), ((Grob, C. S.)) | journal=Scientific American | title=Hallucinogens as Medicine | volume=303 | issue=6 | pages=76–79 | date= December 2010 | url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/hallucinogens-as-medicine | issn=0036-8733 | doi=10.1038/scientificamerican1210-76}}</ref> | ||
In the | In 1976 the book ''Psilocybin Magic Mushroom Grower's Guide'' was released, written by Terence McKenna. | ||
Recent studies in the United States have attracted attention from the popular press and thrust psilocybin into the vogue again.<ref>Keim B. | In 1978 Paul Stamets released ''Psilocybe Mushrooms & Their Allies''. | ||
In the 1990s, psychedelic research gradually began to regain traction, particularly in Europe. Advances in the neurosciences and the availability of brain imaging techniques have provided a reason for using substances like psilocybin to probe the "neural underpinnings of psychotic symptom formation including ego disorders and hallucinations".<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Studerus, E.)), ((Kometer, M.)), ((Hasler, F.)), ((Vollenweider, F. X.)) | journal=Journal of Psychopharmacology | title=Acute, subacute and long-term subjective effects of psilocybin in healthy humans: a pooled analysis of experimental studies | volume=25 | issue=11 | pages=1434–1452 | date= November 2011 | url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0269881110382466 | issn=0269-8811 | doi=10.1177/0269881110382466}}</ref> | |||
Recent studies in the United States have attracted attention from the popular press and thrust psilocybin into the vogue again.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Keim, B.)) | journal=Wired | title=Psilocybin study hints at rebirth of hallucinogen research | date=1 July 2008 | url=https://www.wired.com/2008/07/psilocybin-stud/ | access-date=8 August 2011}}</ref> | |||
===Common names=== | ===Common names=== | ||
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====Neurogenesis==== | ====Neurogenesis==== | ||
A low dose (0.1 mg/kg) of psilocybin produced a trend toward increased neurogenesis in the mouse hippocampus 2 weeks after its administration, while a high dose (1 mg/kg) significantly decreased neurogenesis. These results suggest that the effects of psilocybin on neurogenesis are dose- and time-related.<ref name="pmid=27354908">{{cite journal |last1=Dos Santos |first1=RG |last2=Osório |first2=FL |last3=Crippa |first3=JA |last4=Riba |first4=J |last5=Zuardi |first5=AW |last6=Hallak |first6=JE |title=Antidepressive, anxiolytic, and antiaddictive effects of ayahuasca, psilocybin and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD): a systematic review of clinical trials published in the last 25 years. |journal=Therapeutic advances in psychopharmacology |date=June 2016 |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=193-213 |doi=10.1177/2045125316638008 |pmid=27354908 |pmc=PMC4910400}}</ref> | A low dose (0.1 mg/kg) of psilocybin produced a trend toward increased neurogenesis in the mouse hippocampus 2 weeks after its administration, while a high dose (1 mg/kg) significantly decreased neurogenesis. These results suggest that the effects of psilocybin on neurogenesis are dose- and time-related.<ref name="pmid=27354908">{{cite journal |last1=Dos Santos |first1=RG |last2=Osório |first2=FL |last3=Crippa |first3=JA |last4=Riba |first4=J |last5=Zuardi |first5=AW |last6=Hallak |first6=JE |title=Antidepressive, anxiolytic, and antiaddictive effects of ayahuasca, psilocybin and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD): a systematic review of clinical trials published in the last 25 years. |journal=Therapeutic advances in psychopharmacology |date=June 2016 |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=193-213 |doi=10.1177/2045125316638008 |pmid=27354908 |pmc=PMC4910400}}</ref> | ||
====Psychoplastogen==== | |||
Psilocybin is a psychoplastogen,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vargas |first1=MV |last2=Meyer |first2=R |last3=Avanes |first3=AA |last4=Rus |first4=M |last5=Olson |first5=DE |title=Psychedelics and Other Psychoplastogens for Treating Mental Illness. |journal=Frontiers in psychiatry |date=2021 |volume=12 |pages=727117 |doi=10.3389/fpsyt.2021.727117 |pmid=34671279 |pmc=8520991}}</ref> which refers to a compound capable of promoting rapid and sustained neuroplasticity. | |||
==Chemistry== | ==Chemistry== | ||
Psilocybin, or 4-phosphoryloxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine ('''4-PO-DMT''') is a prodrug that is converted into the pharmacologically active compound [[psilocin]] in the body by a dephosphorylation reaction mediated by alkaline phosphatase enzymes.<ref>Gilbert J, | Psilocybin, or 4-phosphoryloxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine ('''4-PO-DMT''') is a prodrug that is converted into the pharmacologically active compound [[psilocin]] in the body by a dephosphorylation reaction mediated by alkaline phosphatase enzymes.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors=((Gilbert, J.)), ((Senyuva, H.)) | date= 2009 | title=Bioactive Compounds in Foods | publisher=John Wiley & Sons | url=https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:101:1-201411202662 | isbn=9781444302295}}</ref> Both psilocybin and psilocin are organic tryptamine compounds. They are chemically related to the amino acid tryptophan, and structurally similar to the [[neurotransmitter]] [[serotonin]]. | ||
Tryptamines share a core structure comprised of a bicyclic indole heterocycle attached at R<sub>3</sub> to an amino group via an ethyl side chain. Psilocybin is substituted at R<sub>4</sub> of its indole heterocycle with a phosphoryloxy (-PO) functional group. It also contains two methyl groups CH<sub>3</sub>- bound to the terminal amine R<sub>N</sub>. This makes psilocybin the 4-phosphoryloxy ring-substituted analog of [[DMT]].<ref>Horita, A., | Tryptamines share a core structure comprised of a bicyclic indole heterocycle attached at R<sub>3</sub> to an amino group via an ethyl side chain. Psilocybin is substituted at R<sub>4</sub> of its indole heterocycle with a phosphoryloxy (-PO) functional group. It also contains two methyl groups CH<sub>3</sub>- bound to the terminal amine R<sub>N</sub>. This makes psilocybin the 4-phosphoryloxy ring-substituted analog of [[DMT]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Horita, A.)), ((Weber, L. J.)) | journal=Experimental Biology and Medicine | title=Dephosphorylation of Psilocybin to Psilocin by Alkaline Phosphatase | volume=106 | issue=1 | pages=32–34 | date=1 January 1961 | url=http://ebm.sagepub.com/lookup/doi/10.3181/00379727-106-26228 | issn=1535-3702 | doi=10.3181/00379727-106-26228}}</ref> | ||
Psilocybin and psilocin occur in their pure forms as white crystalline powders. Both are unstable in light, particularly while in solution, although their stability at low temperatures in the dark under an inert atmosphere is very good.<ref>Anastos, N., Barnett, N.W., Pfeffer, F. M., | Psilocybin and psilocin occur in their pure forms as white crystalline powders. Both are unstable in light, particularly while in solution, although their stability at low temperatures in the dark under an inert atmosphere is very good.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Anastos, N.)), ((Barnett, N. W.)), ((Pfeffer, F. M.)), ((Lewis, S. W.)) | journal=Science & Justice | title=Investigation into the temporal stability of aqueous standard solutions of psilocin and psilocybin using high performance liquid chromatography | volume=46 | issue=2 | pages=91–96 | date= April 2006 | url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1355030606715799 | issn=13550306 | doi=10.1016/S1355-0306(06)71579-9}}</ref> | ||
of aqueous standard solutions of psilocin and psilocybin using high performance liquid chromatography. | |||
==Pharmacology== | ==Pharmacology== | ||
[[File:Psilocybin neural connections.jpg|270px|thumbnail|The diagram above demonstrates the neural connections associated with sobriety in comparison to being under the influence of psilocybin as demonstrated through the use of MRI scans. The width of the links is proportional to their weight and the size of the nodes is proportional to their strength. | [[File:Psilocybin neural connections.jpg|270px|thumbnail|The diagram above demonstrates the neural connections associated with sobriety in comparison to being under the influence of psilocybin as demonstrated through the use of MRI scans. The width of the links is proportional to their weight and the size of the nodes is proportional to their strength. The proportion of heavy links between communities is much higher and different in the psilocybin group, suggesting greater integration.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Petri, G.)), ((Expert, P.)), ((Turkheimer, F.)), ((Carhart-Harris, R.)), ((Nutt, D.)), ((Hellyer, P. J.)), ((Vaccarino, F.)) | journal=Journal of The Royal Society Interface | title=Homological scaffolds of brain functional networks | volume=11 | issue=101 | pages=20140873 | date=6 December 2014 | url=https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsif.2014.0873 | issn=1742-5689 | doi=10.1098/rsif.2014.0873}}</ref>]] | ||
{{Further|Serotonergic psychedelic}} | {{Further|Serotonergic psychedelic}} | ||
Psilocybin acts as a [[prodrug]] to psilocin, meaning it is | Psilocybin acts as a [[prodrug]] to psilocin, meaning it is inactive until it is converted into psilocin in the body. Upon entering the body, psilocybin is dephosphorylated to psilocin in the intestinal mucosa by alkaline phosphatase and nonspecific esterase.<ref name="Tyls" /> | ||
Psilocin's [[psychedelic]] effects are believed to come from its agonist activity on serotonin 5-HT<sub>2A/C</sub> and 5-HT<sub>1A</sub> receptors.<ref name="Tyls" /> While 5-HT<sub>2A</sub> receptor agonism is considered necessary for hallucinogenic activity, the role of other receptor subtypes is much less understood.<ref name="Tyls" /> | Psilocin's [[psychedelic]] effects are believed to come from its agonist activity on serotonin 5-HT<sub>2A/C</sub> and 5-HT<sub>1A</sub> receptors.<ref name="Tyls" /> While 5-HT<sub>2A</sub> receptor agonism is considered necessary for hallucinogenic activity, the role of other receptor subtypes is much less understood.<ref name="Tyls" /> | ||
Unlike [[LSD]], psilocin has no significant effect on [[dopamine]] receptors and only affects the [[Noradrenaline|noradrenergic]] system at very high dosages.<ref>Psilocybin Investigator’s Brochure | https://maps.org/research-archive/psilo/psilo_ib.pdf</ref> | Unlike [[LSD]], psilocin has no significant effect on [[dopamine]] receptors and only affects the [[Noradrenaline|noradrenergic]] system at very high dosages.<ref>{{Citation | vauthors=((Jerome, L.)) | year=2007 | title=Psilocybin Investigator’s Brochure | publisher=Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies (MAPS). | url=https://maps.org/research-archive/psilo/psilo_ib.pdf}}</ref> | ||
Psilocybin has also been shown by fMRI imaging to have a dampening effect on certain brain regions, most notably the Default Mode Network.{{citation needed}} | Psilocybin has also been shown by fMRI imaging to have a dampening effect on certain brain regions, most notably the Default Mode Network.{{citation needed}} | ||
==Subjective effects== | ==Subjective effects== | ||
The headspace of psilocybin mushrooms is typically described as extremely relaxing, profound and stoning in style compared to more stimulating [[psychedelics]] such as [[LSD]] or [[2C-B]]. They are also regarded as being less clear-headed than other commonly used [[tryptamines]] such as [[4-AcO-DMT]], [[DMT]] and [[ayahuasca]]. This may be due to the presence of other alkaloids like norbaeocystin. | The headspace of psilocybin mushrooms is typically described as extremely relaxing, profound, and stoning in style compared to more stimulating [[psychedelics]] such as [[LSD]] or [[2C-B]]. They are also regarded as being less clear-headed than other commonly used [[tryptamines]] such as [[4-AcO-DMT]], [[DMT]] and [[ayahuasca]]. This may be due to the presence of other alkaloids like norbaeocystin. | ||
{{Preamble/SubjectiveEffects}} | {{Preamble/SubjectiveEffects}} | ||
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*'''[[Effect::Tactile enhancement]]''' - This effect is less prominent than with that of [[LSD]] or [[2C-B]] but is still present and unique in its character. It is repeatedly described as feeling very primitive in its nature often times with the small hairs on the user's arms or legs feeling slightly [[itchiness|itchy]] or even ticklish against the skin. | *'''[[Effect::Tactile enhancement]]''' - This effect is less prominent than with that of [[LSD]] or [[2C-B]] but is still present and unique in its character. It is repeatedly described as feeling very primitive in its nature often times with the small hairs on the user's arms or legs feeling slightly [[itchiness|itchy]] or even ticklish against the skin. | ||
*'''[[Effect::Changes in felt bodily form]]''' - This effect is often accompanied by a sense of warmth or [[Unity and interconnectedness#Unity between the self and specific external systems|unity]] and usually occurs around the peak of the experience or directly after. Users can feel as if they are physically part of or conjoined with other objects. This is usually reported as feeling comfortable in its sensations and even peaceful. | *'''[[Effect::Changes in felt bodily form]]''' - This effect is often accompanied by a sense of warmth or [[Unity and interconnectedness#Unity between the self and specific external systems|unity]] and usually occurs around the peak of the experience or directly after. Users can feel as if they are physically part of or conjoined with other objects. This is usually reported as feeling comfortable in its sensations and even peaceful. | ||
*'''[[Effect::Pain relief]]''' - This effect can be considered as less intense when compared with LSD. Like most psychedelics, this | *'''[[Effect::Pain relief]]''' - This effect can be considered as less intense when compared with LSD. Like most psychedelics, this effect is likely a result of reductions in inflammation as well as from distortions in sensory processing. This effect, while common, is not guaranteed. An increase in pain perception is also possible. | ||
*'''[[Effect::Nausea]]''' - This effect can be greatly lessened or even completely avoided if the individual has an empty stomach prior to ingestion. It is often recommended that one either refrain from eating for approximately 6 to 8 hours beforehand, or eat a light meal 3 to 4 hours before if they are feeling physically fatigued. | *'''[[Effect::Nausea]]''' - This effect can be greatly lessened or even completely avoided if the individual has an empty stomach prior to ingestion. It is often recommended that one either refrain from eating for approximately 6 to 8 hours beforehand, or eat a light meal 3 to 4 hours before if they are feeling physically fatigued. | ||
*'''[[Effect::Changes in felt gravity]]''' | *'''[[Effect::Changes in felt gravity]]''' | ||
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*'''[[Effect::Perspective distortions]]''' | *'''[[Effect::Perspective distortions]]''' | ||
*'''[[Effect::Depth perception distortions]]''' | *'''[[Effect::Depth perception distortions]]''' | ||
*'''[[Effect::Recursion]]''' | |||
*'''[[Effect::Environmental orbism]]''' | *'''[[Effect::Environmental orbism]]''' | ||
*'''[[Effect::Scenery slicing]]''' | *'''[[Effect::Scenery slicing]]''' | ||
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====Hallucinatory states==== | ====Hallucinatory states==== | ||
Psilocybin and its various other forms produce a full range of high level hallucinatory states in a fashion that is more consistent and reproducible than that of many other commonly used [[psychedelic]]s. These effects generally include: | Psilocybin and its various other forms produce a full range of high-level hallucinatory states in a fashion that is more consistent and reproducible than that of many other commonly used [[psychedelic]]s. These effects generally include: | ||
*'''[[Effect::Machinescapes]]''' | *'''[[Effect::Machinescapes]]''' | ||
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*'''[[Effect::Emotion enhancement]]''' - This effect can be described as being more prominent, consistent and profound when compared to other traditional psychedelics such as [[mescaline]] or [[LSD]]. This can lead to strong feelings of compassion, urgency and even completely sporadic moments of intense emotional significance that can also be periodically affected by [[enhancement and suppression cycles]]. | *'''[[Effect::Emotion enhancement]]''' - This effect can be described as being more prominent, consistent and profound when compared to other traditional psychedelics such as [[mescaline]] or [[LSD]]. This can lead to strong feelings of compassion, urgency and even completely sporadic moments of intense emotional significance that can also be periodically affected by [[enhancement and suppression cycles]]. | ||
*'''[[Effect::Empathy, affection, and sociability enhancement]]''' - This effect differs from [[MDMA]] and other [[entactogens]] in that it isn't as central to the experience, feels less forced and more natural and is experienced at a less consistent rate. The sociability enhancement in particular only occurs rarely and it appears to be more [[Emotion enhancement|emotional]]. | *'''[[Effect::Empathy, affection, and sociability enhancement]]''' - This effect differs from [[MDMA]] and other [[entactogens]] in that it isn't as central to the experience, feels less forced and more natural and is experienced at a less consistent rate. The sociability enhancement in particular only occurs rarely and it appears to be more [[Emotion enhancement|emotional]]. | ||
*'''[[Effect::Euthymia]]''' - This effect manifests itself acutely for all classical psychedelics when one to three doses are combined with a psychotherapy treatment program. When comparing meta-analyses, psychedelic psychotherapy greatly outperforms "gold standard" treatments for several mental health problems. | |||
*'''[[Effect::Language suppression]]''' - This effect can be described as a perceived inability or general unwillingness to talk aloud despite feeling perfectly capable of formulating coherent thoughts within one's internal narrative. It is much more common among inexperienced users. | *'''[[Effect::Language suppression]]''' - This effect can be described as a perceived inability or general unwillingness to talk aloud despite feeling perfectly capable of formulating coherent thoughts within one's internal narrative. It is much more common among inexperienced users. | ||
*'''[[Effect::Analysis enhancement]]''' - This effect is consistent in its manifestation and [[outrospection]] dominant. | *'''[[Effect::Analysis enhancement]]''' - This effect is consistent in its manifestation and [[outrospection]] dominant. | ||
*'''[[Effect::Enhancement and suppression cycles]]''' - This can be described as constant waves of extremely stimulated and profound thinking which are spontaneously surpassed in a cyclic fashion by waves of general thought suppression and mental intoxication. These two states seem to switch between each other in a consistent loop once every 20 to 60 minutes. | *'''[[Effect::Enhancement and suppression cycles]]''' - This can be described as constant waves of extremely stimulated and profound thinking which are spontaneously surpassed in a cyclic fashion by waves of general thought suppression and mental intoxication. These two states seem to switch between each other in a consistent loop once every 20 to 60 minutes. | ||
*'''[[Effect::Feelings of impending doom]]''' - This effect is usually only experienced during the [[Duration#Come up|come up]] phase but typically completely passes or subsides once the primary effects begin. It should be noted that this effect is relatively consistent and normal for psilocybin and related [[tryptamines]] which is why a [[Set and setting|positive and well-informed mindset]] is key. Less regularly this aspect can also occur during the peak but will most often be met | *'''[[Effect::Feelings of impending doom]]''' - This effect is usually only experienced during the [[Duration#Come up|come up]] phase but typically completely passes or subsides once the primary effects begin. It should be noted that this effect is relatively consistent and normal for psilocybin and related [[tryptamines]] which is why a [[Set and setting|positive and well-informed mindset]] is key. Less regularly, this aspect can also occur during the peak but will most often be met afterward with sensations of [[cognitive euphoria|euphoria]], [[catharsis]] or [[rejuvenation]]. | ||
*'''[[Effect::Cognitive euphoria]]''' | *'''[[Effect::Cognitive euphoria]]''' | ||
*'''[[Effect::Autonomous voice communication]]''' | *'''[[Effect::Autonomous voice communication]]''' | ||
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*'''[[Effect::Catharsis]]''' | *'''[[Effect::Catharsis]]''' | ||
*'''[[Effect::Rejuvenation]]''' - While this component can occur spontaneously at any point, it typically follows a difficult phase of the experience, if not the entire experience itself. It is however almost always felt during the [[Duration#Offset|offset]] of a psilocybin experience and tends to slowly transition into the after effects which are generally described as positive. These positive or [[Mindfulness|mindful]] after effects are sometimes referred to as an "afterglow" and is both common and consistent for psilocybin and related [[tryptamines]]. | *'''[[Effect::Rejuvenation]]''' - While this component can occur spontaneously at any point, it typically follows a difficult phase of the experience, if not the entire experience itself. It is however almost always felt during the [[Duration#Offset|offset]] of a psilocybin experience and tends to slowly transition into the after effects which are generally described as positive. These positive or [[Mindfulness|mindful]] after effects are sometimes referred to as an "afterglow" and is both common and consistent for psilocybin and related [[tryptamines]]. | ||
*'''[[Effect::Addiction suppression]]'''<ref>Johnson, M. W., Garcia-Romeu, A., Cosimano, M. P., | *'''[[Effect::Addiction suppression]]'''<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Johnson, M. W.)), ((Garcia-Romeu, A.)), ((Cosimano, M. P.)), ((Griffiths, R. R.)) | journal=Journal of Psychopharmacology | title=Pilot study of the 5-HT 2A R agonist psilocybin in the treatment of tobacco addiction | volume=28 | issue=11 | pages=983–992 | date= November 2014 | url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0269881114548296 | issn=0269-8811 | doi=10.1177/0269881114548296}}</ref> | ||
*'''[[Effect::Time distortion]]''' | *'''[[Effect::Time distortion]]''' | ||
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*'''[[Cannabis]]''' - Cannabis majorly amplifies the sensory and cognitive effects of psilocybin mushrooms. This should be used with extreme caution, especially if one is not experienced with psychedelics. This interaction can also amplify the [[anxiety]], [[confusion]] and [[delusion]] producing aspects of cannabis significantly. Those who choose to use this combination are advised to start off with only a fraction of their usual cannabis dose, and slow down the pace of their normal intake considerably. | *'''[[Cannabis]]''' - Cannabis majorly amplifies the sensory and cognitive effects of psilocybin mushrooms. This should be used with extreme caution, especially if one is not experienced with psychedelics. This interaction can also amplify the [[anxiety]], [[confusion]] and [[delusion]] producing aspects of cannabis significantly. Those who choose to use this combination are advised to start off with only a fraction of their usual cannabis dose, and slow down the pace of their normal intake considerably. | ||
*'''[[Dissociatives]]''' - Dissociatives can enhance the geometry, euphoria, dissociation and hallucinatory effects of psilocybin mushrooms. Dissociative-induced [[Visual_disconnection#Holes.2C_spaces_and_voids|holes, spaces, and voids]] while under the influence of psilocybin can result in significantly more vivid visuals than dissociatives alone, along with more intense [[internal hallucinations]], [[confusion]], [[nausea]], [[delusions]] and increased risk of [[psychosis]]. | *'''[[Dissociatives]]''' - Dissociatives can enhance the geometry, euphoria, dissociation and hallucinatory effects of psilocybin mushrooms. Dissociative-induced [[Visual_disconnection#Holes.2C_spaces_and_voids|holes, spaces, and voids]] while under the influence of psilocybin can result in significantly more vivid visuals than dissociatives alone, along with more intense [[internal hallucinations]], [[confusion]], [[nausea]], [[delusions]] and increased risk of [[psychosis]]. | ||
*'''[[MDMA]]''' - MDMA enhances the visual, physical and cognitive effects of psilocybin. The synergy between these substances is unpredictable, and it is advised to start with lower dosages than one would take for either substance individually. The toxicity of this combination is unknown, although there is some evidence that suggests this may increase | *'''[[MDMA]]''' - MDMA enhances the visual, physical and cognitive effects of psilocybin. The synergy between these substances is unpredictable, and it is advised to start with lower dosages than one would take for either substance individually. The toxicity of this combination is unknown, although there is some evidence that suggests this may increase the neurotoxic effects of MDMA.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Armstrong, B. D.)), ((Paik, E.)), ((Chhith, S.)), ((Lelievre, V.)), ((Waschek, J. A.)), ((Howard, S. G.)) | journal=Neuroscience Research Communications | title=Potentiation of (DL)-3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA)-induced toxicity by the serotonin 2A receptior partial agonist d-lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), and the protection of same by the serotonin 2A/2C receptor antagonist MDL 11,939 | volume=35 | issue=2 | pages=83–95 | date= September 2004 | url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/nrc.20023 | issn=0893-6609 | doi=10.1002/nrc.20023}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Gudelsky, G. A.)), ((Yamamoto, B. K.)), ((Frank Nash, J.)) | journal=European Journal of Pharmacology | title=Potentiation of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine-induced dopamine release and serotonin neurotoxicity by 5-HT2 receptor agonists | volume=264 | issue=3 | pages=325–330 | date= November 1994 | url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0014299994906696 | issn=00142999 | doi=10.1016/0014-2999(94)90669-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Capela, J. P.)), ((Fernandes, E.)), ((Remião, F.)), ((Bastos, M. L.)), ((Meisel, A.)), ((Carvalho, F.)) | journal=Neurotoxicology | title=Ecstasy induces apoptosis via 5-HT(2A)-receptor stimulation in cortical neurons | volume=28 | issue=4 | pages=868–875 | date= July 2007 | issn=0161-813X | doi=10.1016/j.neuro.2007.04.005}}</ref> | ||
*'''[[Alcohol]]''' - This combination is not typically recommended due to alcohol’s potential to cause [[dehydration]], [[nausea]], and [[physical fatigue]] at higher doses. However, this combination is reasonably safe in low doses and, when used responsibly, can "take the edge off a trip" and reduce anxiety in a manner somewhat similar to benzodiazepines. With [[Psilocybin#Psilocybin-containing mushrooms|psilocybin mushrooms]] in particular it is often recommended that the user waits until the [[Duration#Offset|"come down"]] phase to consume alcohol due to the sometimes nauseating effects of mushrooms, especially within the first 2 - 3 hours of the experience. | *'''[[Alcohol]]''' - This combination is not typically recommended due to alcohol’s potential to cause [[dehydration]], [[nausea]], and [[physical fatigue]] at higher doses. However, this combination is reasonably safe in low doses and, when used responsibly, can "take the edge off a trip" and reduce anxiety in a manner somewhat similar to benzodiazepines. With [[Psilocybin#Psilocybin-containing mushrooms|psilocybin mushrooms]] in particular it is often recommended that the user waits until the [[Duration#Offset|"come down"]] phase to consume alcohol due to the sometimes nauseating effects of mushrooms, especially within the first 2 - 3 hours of the experience. | ||
*'''[[Benzodiazepines]]''' - Depending on the dosage, benzodiazepines can slightly to completely reduce the intensity of the cognitive, physical and visual effects of a psilocybin trip. They can be very efficient at largely stopping or mitigating a [[bad trip]] at the cost of amnesia and reduced trip intensity. Caution is advised when acquiring them for this purpose, however, due to the high abuse potential they possess. | *'''[[Benzodiazepines]]''' - Depending on the dosage, benzodiazepines can slightly to completely reduce the intensity of the cognitive, physical and visual effects of a psilocybin trip. They can be very efficient at largely stopping or mitigating a [[bad trip]] at the cost of amnesia and reduced trip intensity. Caution is advised when acquiring them for this purpose, however, due to the high abuse potential they possess. | ||
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==Dosage and preparation== | ==Dosage and preparation== | ||
The dosage of psilocybin mushrooms depends on the potency of the mushroom (the total psilocybin and psilocin content of the mushrooms), which varies significantly both between species and within the same species. However, "the most commonly used mushroom is Psilocybe cubensis, which contains 10–12 mg of psilocybin per gram of dried mushrooms".<ref>https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/immunology-and-microbiology/psilocybin</ref> | |||
The | The concentration of active psilocybin mushroom compounds varies not only from species to species, but also from mushroom to mushroom inside a given species, subspecies or variety. The same holds true even for different parts of the same mushroom. | ||
The | For example, in the species ''Psilocybe samuiensis'', the dried cap of the mushroom contains the most psilocybin at about 0.23%–0.90%. The mycelium contains about 0.24%–0.32%.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Gartz, J.)), ((Allen, J. W.)), ((Merlin, M. D.)) | journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology | title=Ethnomycology, biochemistry, and cultivation of Psilocybe samuiensis Guzmán, Bandala and Allen, a new psychoactive fungus from Koh Samui, Thailand | volume=43 | issue=2 | pages=73–80 | date= July 1994 | url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/037887419490006X | issn=03788741 | doi=10.1016/0378-8741(94)90006-X}}</ref> | ||
===Psilocybin=== | |||
====Dosage calculation==== | |||
Math: Desired psilocybin from divided by the psilocybin strength of the strain. For example, if you want to consume 15 mg psilocybin (a common dose) from cubensis with 1% psilocybin content: | |||
:15 mg / 1% = 15/0.01 = 1500 mg = 1.5 g | |||
====Psilocybe cubensis==== | ====Psilocybe cubensis==== | ||
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Psilocybe cubensis (also known as ''cubes'') is one of the most commonly used species of psilocybin mushrooms. The doses for oral consumption for dried cubensis mushrooms are generally considered to be: | Psilocybe cubensis (also known as ''cubes'') is one of the most commonly used species of psilocybin mushrooms. The doses for oral consumption for dried cubensis mushrooms are generally considered to be: | ||
*'''Threshold:''' '' | *'''Threshold:''' ''0.25 - 0.5 g'' | ||
*'''Light:''' '' | *'''Light:''' ''0.5 - 1 g'' | ||
*'''Common:''' '' | *'''Common:''' ''1 - 2.5 g'' | ||
*'''Strong:''' '' | *'''Strong:''' ''2.5 - 5 g'' | ||
*'''Heavy:''' '' | *'''Heavy:''' ''5 g +'' | ||
===Preparation methods=== | ===Preparation methods=== | ||
Preparation methods for this compound within our [[tutorial index]] include: | Preparation methods for this compound within our [[tutorial index]] include: | ||
*[[ | *[[Brown rice flour psilocybin mushroom tek]] | ||
*[[Outdoor mushroom cultivation]] | *[[Outdoor mushroom cultivation]] | ||
*[[Mushroom chocolates]] | *[[Mushroom chocolates]] | ||
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==Research== | ==Research== | ||
===Antidepressant effects=== | ===Antidepressant effects=== | ||
While further research is needed to establish the utility of psilocybin and other psychedelics in treating depression, a pilot study has observed significantly decreased depression scores in terminal cancer patients six months after treatment with psilocybin.<ref>Grob, C. S., Danforth, A. L., Chopra, G. S., Hagerty, M., McKay, C. R., Halberstadt, A. L., | While further research is needed to establish the utility of psilocybin and other psychedelics in treating depression, a pilot study has observed significantly decreased depression scores in terminal cancer patients six months after treatment with psilocybin.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Grob, C. S.)), ((Danforth, A. L.)), ((Chopra, G. S.)), ((Hagerty, M.)), ((McKay, C. R.)), ((Halberstadt, A. L.)), ((Greer, G. R.)) | journal=Archives of General Psychiatry | title=Pilot Study of Psilocybin Treatment for Anxiety in Patients With Advanced-Stage Cancer | volume=68 | issue=1 | pages=71 | date=3 January 2011 | url=http://archpsyc.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?doi=10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2010.116 | issn=0003-990X | doi=10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2010.116}}</ref> | ||
An open-label study was carried out in 2016 in the UK to investigate the feasibility, safety and efficacy of psilocybin in treating patients with unipolar treatment-resistant depression with promising results; although the study was small and involved only twelve patients, seven of those patients met formal criteria for remission one week following psilocybin treatment and five of those were still in remission from their depression at three months.<ref>Carhart-Harris, R. L., Bolstridge, M., Rucker, J., Day, C. M., Erritzoe, D., Kaelen, M., ... | An open-label study was carried out in 2016 in the UK to investigate the feasibility, safety and efficacy of psilocybin in treating patients with unipolar treatment-resistant depression with promising results; although the study was small and involved only twelve patients, seven of those patients met formal criteria for remission one week following psilocybin treatment and five of those were still in remission from their depression at three months.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Carhart-Harris, R. L.)), ((Bolstridge, M.)), ((Rucker, J.)), ((Day, C. M. J.)), ((Erritzoe, D.)), ((Kaelen, M.)), ((Bloomfield, M.)), ((Rickard, J. A.)), ((Forbes, B.)), ((Feilding, A.)), ((Taylor, D.)), ((Pilling, S.)), ((Curran, V. H.)), ((Nutt, D. J.)) | journal=The Lancet Psychiatry | title=Psilocybin with psychological support for treatment-resistant depression: an open-label feasibility study | volume=3 | issue=7 | pages=619–627 | date= July 2016 | url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2215036616300657 | issn=22150366 | doi=10.1016/S2215-0366(16)30065-7}}</ref> | ||
The mechanism behind this is not known as of yet, but researchers have suggested that psilocin's deactivation of the medial prefrontal cortex<ref name="psilofMRI">Carhart-Harris, R. L., Erritzoe, D., Williams, T., Stone, J. M., Reed, L. J., Colasanti, A., ... | The mechanism behind this is not known as of yet, but researchers have suggested that psilocin's deactivation of the medial prefrontal cortex<ref name="psilofMRI">{{cite journal | vauthors=((Carhart-Harris, R. L.)), ((Erritzoe, D.)), ((Williams, T.)), ((Stone, J. M.)), ((Reed, L. J.)), ((Colasanti, A.)), ((Tyacke, R. J.)), ((Leech, R.)), ((Malizia, A. L.)), ((Murphy, K.)), ((Hobden, P.)), ((Evans, J.)), ((Feilding, A.)), ((Wise, R. G.)), ((Nutt, D. J.)) | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | title=Neural correlates of the psychedelic state as determined by fMRI studies with psilocybin | volume=109 | issue=6 | pages=2138–2143 | date=7 February 2012 | url=https://pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.1119598109 | issn=0027-8424 | doi=10.1073/pnas.1119598109}}</ref> (mPFC) may be relevant to its antidepressant effects, as the mPFC is known to be elevated in depression and normalized after effective treatment.<ref name="psilofMRI" /> mPFC hyperactivity has been associated with trait rumination.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Farb, N. A. S.)), ((Anderson, A. K.)), ((Bloch, R. T.)), ((Segal, Z. V.)) | journal=Biological Psychiatry | title=Mood-Linked Responses in Medial Prefrontal Cortex Predict Relapse in Patients with Recurrent Unipolar Depression | volume=70 | issue=4 | pages=366–372 | date= August 2011 | url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0006322311002526 | issn=00063223 | doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2011.03.009}}</ref> | ||
Another possible factor to psilocybin's potential against depression may be that depressed patients with high levels of dysfunctional attitudes were found to have low levels of 5-HT(<sub>2A</sub>) agonism.<ref>Bhagwagar, Z., Hinz, R., Taylor, M., Fancy, S., Cowen, P., | Another possible factor to psilocybin's potential against depression may be that depressed patients with high levels of dysfunctional attitudes were found to have low levels of 5-HT(<sub>2A</sub>) agonism.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Bhagwagar, Z.)), ((Hinz, R.)), ((Taylor, M.)), ((Fancy, S.)), ((Cowen, P.)), ((Grasby, P.)) | journal=American Journal of Psychiatry | title=Increased 5-HT 2A Receptor Binding in Euthymic, Medication-Free Patients Recovered From Depression: A Positron Emission Study With [ 11 C]MDL 100,907 | volume=163 | issue=9 | pages=1580–1587 | date= September 2006 | url=https://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/full/10.1176/ajp.2006.163.9.1580 | issn=0002-953X | doi=10.1176/ajp.2006.163.9.1580}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Meyer, J. H.)), ((McMain, S.)), ((Kennedy, S. H.)), ((Korman, L.)), ((Brown, G. M.)), ((DaSilva, J. N.)), ((Wilson, A. A.)), ((Blak, T.)), ((Eynan-Harvey, R.)), ((Goulding, V. S.)), ((Houle, S.)), ((Links, P.)) | journal=American Journal of Psychiatry | title=Dysfunctional Attitudes and 5-HT2 Receptors During Depression and Self-Harm | volume=160 | issue=1 | pages=90–99 | date= January 2003 | url=https://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/full/10.1176/appi.ajp.160.1.90 | issn=0002-953X | doi=10.1176/appi.ajp.160.1.90}}</ref> | ||
==Toxicity and harm potential== | ==Toxicity and harm potential== | ||
[[File:harmchart.png|thumb|right|300px|Radar plot showing relative physical harm, social harm, and dependence of benzodiazepines in comparison to other drugs.<ref>Development of a rational scale to assess the harm of drugs of potential misuse | [[File:HarmCausedByDrugsTable.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|Table from the 2010 [[DrugScience]] study ranking various drugs (legal and illegal) based on statements by drug-harm experts. This study rated "mushroom" the least harmful drug overall and for users, and the only drug that didn't get any scores for harm on others.<ref name="Nutt_2010">{{cite journal | vauthors = Nutt DJ, King LA, Phillips LD | title = Drug harms in the UK: a multicriteria decision analysis | journal = Lancet | volume = 376 | issue = 9752 | pages = 1558–1565 | date = November 2010 | pmid = 21036393 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(10)61462-6 | s2cid = 5667719 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.690.1283 }}</ref>]] | ||
[[File:harmchart.png|thumb|right|300px|Radar plot showing relative physical harm, social harm, and dependence of benzodiazepines in comparison to other drugs.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Nutt, D.)), ((King, L. A.)), ((Saulsbury, W.)), ((Blakemore, C.)) | journal=The Lancet | title=Development of a rational scale to assess the harm of drugs of potential misuse | volume=369 | issue=9566 | pages=1047–1053 | date=24 March 2007 | url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140673607604644 | issn=0140-6736 | doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60464-4}}</ref>]] | |||
{{Further|Responsible use#Hallucinogens}} | {{Further|Responsible use#Hallucinogens}} | ||
Numerous studies have found that psilocybin mushrooms are physiologically well-tolerated and has an [[Toxicity::extremely low toxicity relative to dose]]. There is no evidence for long-lasting effects on the brain or other organs and there are no documented deaths attributed to the direct effects of psilocybin mushrooms toxicity.<ref name=" | Numerous studies have found that psilocybin mushrooms are physiologically well-tolerated and has an [[Toxicity::extremely low toxicity relative to dose]]. There is no evidence for long-lasting effects on the brain or other organs and there are no documented deaths attributed to the direct effects of psilocybin mushrooms toxicity.<ref name="Nichols2016">{{cite journal|last1=Nichols|first1=David E.|author-link=David E. Nichols|year=2004|title=Hallucinogens|journal=Pharmacology & Therapeutics|volume=101|issue=2|pages=131-181|doi=10.1016/j.pharmthera.2003.11.002|issn=0163-7258|eissn=1879-016X|oclc=04981366}}</ref> | ||
However, it is worth noting that while they may not be capable of causing direct bodily toxicity or death, their use can still present serious hazards. | However, it is worth noting that while they may not be capable of causing direct bodily toxicity or death, their use can still present serious hazards. | ||
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===Psychosis and mental disorder risk=== | ===Psychosis and mental disorder risk=== | ||
Psilocybin mushrooms can exacerbate symptoms (e.g. [[delusions]], [[mania]], [[psychosis]]) of various mental disorders. Additionally, <span style="color:#ff0000"> '''they can precipitate the early onset of schizophrenia in vulnerable individuals.'''<ref name=" | Psilocybin mushrooms can exacerbate symptoms (e.g. [[delusions]], [[mania]], [[psychosis]]) of various mental disorders. Additionally, <span style="color:#ff0000"> '''they can precipitate the early onset of schizophrenia in vulnerable individuals.'''<ref name="Nichols2016" /> | ||
<span style="color:#ff0000"> Those with a personal or family history of mental disorders, particularly psychotic disorders like schizophrenia, should not use psilocybin mushrooms without consulting a qualified medical professional. | <span style="color:#ff0000"> Those with a personal or family history of mental disorders, particularly psychotic disorders like schizophrenia, should not use psilocybin mushrooms without consulting a qualified medical professional. | ||
===Dependence and abuse potential=== | ===Dependence and abuse potential=== | ||
Like other [[serotonergic psychedelics]], psilocybin mushrooms have [[Addiction potential::low abuse potential|low abuse]] and [[Addiction potential::no physical dependence potential]].<ref>Johnson, M. W., Griffiths, R. R., Hendricks, P. S., | Like other [[serotonergic psychedelics]], psilocybin mushrooms have [[Addiction potential::low abuse potential|low abuse]] and [[Addiction potential::no physical dependence potential]].<ref name="Johnson2018">{{cite journal | vauthors=((Johnson, M. W.)), ((Griffiths, R. R.)), ((Hendricks, P. S.)), ((Henningfield, J. E.)) | journal=Neuropharmacology | title=The abuse potential of medical psilocybin according to the 8 factors of the Controlled Substances Act | volume=142 | pages=143–166 | date= November 2018 | url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0028390818302296 | issn=00283908 | doi=10.1016/j.neuropharm.2018.05.012}}</ref> | ||
There are no literature reports of successful attempts to train animals to self-administer a serotonergic psychedelic, which is predictive of abuse liability, indicating that it does not have the necessary pharmacology to either initiate or maintain dependence.<ref | There are no literature reports of successful attempts to train animals to self-administer a serotonergic psychedelic, which is predictive of abuse liability, indicating that it does not have the necessary pharmacology to either initiate or maintain dependence.<ref name="Johnson2018" /> | ||
Additionally, there is no human clinical evidence that psilocybin mushrooms causes addiction. Finally, there is virtually no withdrawal syndrome when chronic use of psilocybin mushrooms is stopped. | Additionally, there is no human clinical evidence that psilocybin mushrooms causes addiction. Finally, there is virtually no withdrawal syndrome when chronic use of psilocybin mushrooms is stopped. | ||
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In rare cases, psilocybin mushrooms may trigger [[hallucinogen persisting perception disorder]] (HPPD) in some individuals.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.erowid.org/archive/rhodium/pdf/hppd.review.pdf|first1=J. H.|last1=Halpern|first2=H. G.|last2=Pope Jr|title=Hallucinogen persisting perception disorder: what do we know after 50 years?|journal=Drug and Alcohol Dependence|volume=69|year=2003|pages=109-119|issue=2|doi=10.1016/S0376-8716(02)00306-X|pmid=12609692|issn=0376-8716}}</ref> The cause is unclear; however, explanations in terms of psilocybin physically remaining in the body for months or years after consumption have been discounted by experimental evidence. | In rare cases, psilocybin mushrooms may trigger [[hallucinogen persisting perception disorder]] (HPPD) in some individuals.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.erowid.org/archive/rhodium/pdf/hppd.review.pdf|first1=J. H.|last1=Halpern|first2=H. G.|last2=Pope Jr|title=Hallucinogen persisting perception disorder: what do we know after 50 years?|journal=Drug and Alcohol Dependence|volume=69|year=2003|pages=109-119|issue=2|doi=10.1016/S0376-8716(02)00306-X|pmid=12609692|issn=0376-8716}}</ref> The cause is unclear; however, explanations in terms of psilocybin physically remaining in the body for months or years after consumption have been discounted by experimental evidence. | ||
Some say HPPD is a manifestation of post-traumatic stress disorder, not related to the direct action on brain chemistry, and varies according to the susceptibility of the individual to the disorder.<ref>https://go.drugbank.com/drugs/DB04829</ref> | Some say HPPD is a manifestation of post-traumatic stress disorder, not related to the direct action on brain chemistry, and varies according to the susceptibility of the individual to the disorder.<ref>{{Citation | title=Lysergic acid diethylamide | url=https://go.drugbank.com/drugs/DB04829}}</ref> | ||
===Dangerous interactions=== | ===Dangerous interactions=== | ||
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*'''[[UncertainInteraction::Amphetamines]]''' - Stimulants increase anxiety levels and the risk of thought loops which can lead to negative experiences | *'''[[UncertainInteraction::Amphetamines]]''' - Stimulants increase anxiety levels and the risk of thought loops which can lead to negative experiences | ||
*'''[[[[UncertainInteraction::Cannabis|Cannabis]]]]''':<ref name="tripsit"></ref> Cannabis can have an unexpectedly strong and unpredictable synergy with psilocybin mushrooms. While it is commonly used to intensify or prolong the mushrooms' effects, caution is highly advised as mixing these substances can significantly increase the risk of [[anxiety]], [[paranoia]], [[panic attacks]], and [[psychosis]]. Anecdotal reports often describe the ingestion of cannabis as the triggering event for a [[bad trip]] or [[psychosis]]. Users are advised to start off with only a fraction (e.g. 1/4th - 1/3rd) of their typical cannabis dose and space out hits to avoid accidental over-intake. | *'''[[[[UncertainInteraction::Cannabis|Cannabis]]]]''':<ref name="tripsit">{{Citation | title=TripSit Factsheets - Mushrooms | url=https://drugs.tripsit.me/mushrooms}}</ref> Cannabis can have an unexpectedly strong and unpredictable synergy with psilocybin mushrooms. While it is commonly used to intensify or prolong the mushrooms' effects, caution is highly advised as mixing these substances can significantly increase the risk of [[anxiety]], [[paranoia]], [[panic attacks]], and [[psychosis]]. Anecdotal reports often describe the ingestion of cannabis as the triggering event for a [[bad trip]] or [[psychosis]]. Users are advised to start off with only a fraction (e.g. 1/4th - 1/3rd) of their typical cannabis dose and space out hits to avoid accidental over-intake. | ||
*'''[[UncertainInteraction::Cocaine]]''' - Stimulants increase anxiety levels and the risk of thought loops which can lead to negative experiences | *'''[[UncertainInteraction::Cocaine]]''' - Stimulants increase anxiety levels and the risk of thought loops which can lead to negative experiences | ||
*'''[[UnsafeInteraction::Tramadol]]''' - Tramadol is well known to lower seizure threshold and psychedelics also cause occasional seizures. | *'''[[UnsafeInteraction::Tramadol]]''' - Tramadol is well known to lower seizure threshold and psychedelics also cause occasional seizures. | ||
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</blockquote> | </blockquote> | ||
*'''Austria:''' Psilocybin containing mushrooms are illegal to possess in dried form, to sell and to offer, give or get somebody under the SMG (Suchtmittelgesetz Österreich). It is illegal to grow them with the intention of "producing psychotropic substances" (as psilocin and psilocybin) mentioned in [https://www.ris.bka.gv.at/Dokumente/BgblPdf/1997_148_3/1997_148_3.pdf BGBl. III Nr. 148/1997] .<ref>https://www.jusline.at/gesetz/smg/paragraf/27</ref> | *'''Austria:''' Psilocybin containing mushrooms are illegal to possess in dried form, to sell and to offer, give or get somebody under the SMG (Suchtmittelgesetz Österreich). It is illegal to grow them with the intention of "producing psychotropic substances" (as psilocin and psilocybin) mentioned in [https://www.ris.bka.gv.at/Dokumente/BgblPdf/1997_148_3/1997_148_3.pdf BGBl. III Nr. 148/1997] .<ref>{{Citation | vauthors=((Unternehmensberatung, A.)) | title=§ 27 SMG (Suchtmittelgesetz), Unerlaubter Umgang mit Suchtgiften - JUSLINE Österreich | url=https://www.jusline.at/gesetz/smg/paragraf/27}}</ref> | ||
*'''Bahamas:''' Psilocybin mushrooms are legal to possess, grow, and consume.{{citation needed}} | *'''Bahamas:''' Psilocybin mushrooms are legal to possess, grow, and consume.{{citation needed}} | ||
*''' | *'''Belgium:''' Possession and sale of mushrooms have been illegal since 1988.{{citation needed}} | ||
*'''Brazil:''' Psilocybin Mushrooms derived psychoactive substances targeted for unjustified consumption are illegal to possess, store, transport, import, export, prescribe, administer, sell and advertise, regardless of no intent of profit and in any form. Cultivation of the former, however, only under the premise of "botanical purposes", or similar, is perfectly allowed due to legal gap in which ''Psilocybe'' mushrooms themselves are not explicitly listed as sources of potential psychotropic substances. Use of Psilocybin containing mushrooms within religious cults are constitucionally and internationally protected from antidrug policies and are, likewise, allowed.<ref>All acording to articles (''artigos'') 2 and 33, ''[https://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_ato2004-2006/2006/lei/l11343.htm Lei nº 11.343 of 23/8/2006]'', referring to numbers 160 and 161 of chart F2 (''lista F2'') of the ''Portaria SVS/MS nº 344 of 12/5/1998'', last amended by [https://www.in.gov.br/en/web/dou/-/resolucao-rdc-n-835-de-13-de-dezembro-de-2023-531033031 ''Resolução de Diretoria Colegiada - RDC nº 835 of 13/12/2023'', as of 29/2/2024].</ref> | |||
*'''British Virgin Isles:''' The sale of mushrooms is illegal, but possession and consumption is legal.{{citation needed}} | *'''British Virgin Isles:''' The sale of mushrooms is illegal, but possession and consumption is legal.{{citation needed}} | ||
*'''Bulgaria:''' The sale of mushrooms is illegal, but possession and consumption is legal.{{citation needed}} | *'''Bulgaria:''' The sale of mushrooms is illegal, but possession and consumption is legal.{{citation needed}} | ||
*'''Canada:''' Psilocybin and psilocin are illegal to possess, obtain or produce without a prescription or license as they are Schedule III under the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act; however, dried psilocybin mushrooms are openly sold on dozens of Canadian websites. Spores and growing kits are legal to possess. <ref>{{Citation | vauthors=((Branch, L. S.)) | year=2022 | title=Consolidated federal laws of Canada, Controlled Drugs and Substances Act | url=https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/C-38.8/page-15.html}}</ref> | |||
*'''Canada:''' Psilocybin and psilocin are illegal to possess, obtain or produce without a prescription or license as they are Schedule III under the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act; however, dried psilocybin mushrooms are openly sold on dozens of Canadian websites. Spores and growing kits are legal to possess. <ref> | *'''Cyprus:''' Psilocybin mushrooms are illegal to possess, grow, sale, and consume.{{citation needed}} | ||
*'''Czech Republic:''' The distribution (including sale) of mushrooms is illegal, but consumption is legal. The possession of over 40 hallucinogenic caps is considered a crime if they contain more than 50mg of psilocin or the corresponding amount of psilocybin. The possession of more than 40g of hallucinogenic mycelium is considered a crime. If these limits are not exceeded, the act is considered a minor offense and a fine of up to 15 thousand CZK may be imposed. | *'''Czech Republic:''' The distribution (including sale) of mushrooms is illegal, but consumption is legal. The possession of over 40 hallucinogenic caps is considered a crime if they contain more than 50mg of psilocin or the corresponding amount of psilocybin. The possession of more than 40g of hallucinogenic mycelium is considered a crime. If these limits are not exceeded, the act is considered a minor offense and a fine of up to 15 thousand CZK may be imposed. | ||
*'''Denmark:''' Psilocybin mushrooms are illegal to possess, grow, sale, and consume.{{citation needed}} | *'''Denmark:''' Psilocybin mushrooms are illegal to possess, grow, sale, and consume.{{citation needed}} | ||
*'''Finland:''' Psilocybin mushrooms are illegal to possess, grow, sale, and consume.{{citation needed}} | *'''Finland:''' Psilocybin mushrooms are illegal to possess, grow, sale, and consume.{{citation needed}} | ||
*'''Germany:''' Psilocybin is illegal to produce, possess or sale under Schedule I of the Narcotics Act (''Anlage I BtMG'')<ref> | *'''Germany:''' Psilocybin is illegal to produce, possess or sale under Schedule I of the Narcotics Act (''Anlage I BtMG'')<ref>{{Citation | title=Anlage I BtMG - Einzelnorm | url=https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/btmg_1981/anlage_i.html}}</ref>. Consumption is not illegal. The mushroom and spores by itself are not illegal and only become illegal when containing Psilocybin or Psilocin. | ||
*'''Greece:''' Psilocybin mushrooms are illegal to possess, grow, sale, and consume.{{citation needed}} | *'''Greece:''' Psilocybin mushrooms are illegal to possess, grow, sale, and consume.{{citation needed}} | ||
*'''Iceland:''' The sale of Psilocybin mushrooms is illegal, but possession and consumption is legal. | *'''Iceland:''' The sale of Psilocybin mushrooms is illegal, but possession and consumption is legal. | ||
*'''India:''' Psilocybin mushrooms are illegal to possess, grow, sale, and consume. However, it is reported that many police departments in undeveloped areas are unaware of the prohibition. | *'''India:''' Psilocybin mushrooms are illegal to possess, grow, sale, and consume. However, it is reported that many police departments in undeveloped areas are unaware of the prohibition. | ||
*'''Ireland:''' Psilocybin mushrooms are illegal to possess, grow, sale, and consume.{{citation needed}} | |||
*'''Italy''': Psilocybin is a schedule I drug (Tabella 1). <ref>LEGGE 16 maggio 2014, n. 79 https://www.gazzettaufficiale.it/eli/id/2014/05/20/14G00090/sg</ref> | |||
*'''Japan:''' Psilocybin mushrooms are illegal to possess, grow, sale, and consume.{{citation needed}} | *'''Japan:''' Psilocybin mushrooms are illegal to possess, grow, sale, and consume.{{citation needed}} | ||
*'''Latvia:''' Hallucinogenic mushrooms, psilocin and psilocybin are Schedule I controlled substances.<ref>Noteikumi par Latvijā kontrolējamajām narkotiskajām vielām, psihotropajām vielām un prekursoriem | *'''Latvia:''' Hallucinogenic mushrooms, psilocin and psilocybin are Schedule I controlled substances.<ref>{{Citation | title=Zaudējis spēku - Noteikumi par Latvijā kontrolējamajām narkotiskajām vielām, psihotropajām vielām un prekursoriem | url=https://likumi.lv/doc.php?id=121086}}</ref> | ||
*'''Luxembourg:''' Psilocybin is a prohibited substance<ref> | *'''Luxembourg:''' Psilocybin is a prohibited substance<ref>{{Citation | title=Legilux | url=https://legilux.public.lu/eli/etat/leg/rgd/1974/03/26/n1/jo}}</ref> | ||
*'''Mexico:''' The possession, growth, sale and consumption of mushrooms is illegal. Rules are relaxed regarding religious use however.{{citation needed}} | *'''Mexico:''' The possession, growth, sale and consumption of mushrooms is illegal. Rules are relaxed regarding religious use however.{{citation needed}} | ||
*'''The Netherlands:''' The possession, growth, sale and consumption of mushrooms is illegal. However, due to a legal loophole, psilocybin truffles can be legally possessed, grown, sold and consumed.{{citation needed}} | *'''The Netherlands:''' The possession, growth, sale and consumption of mushrooms is illegal. However, due to a legal loophole, psilocybin truffles can be legally possessed, grown, sold and consumed.{{citation needed}} | ||
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*'''Switzerland''': Mushrooms of the species Conocybe, Panaeolus, Psilocybe and Stropharia are controlled under Verzechnis D.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.admin.ch/opc/de/classified-compilation/20101220/index.html|title=Verordnung des EDI über die Verzeichnisse der Betäubungsmittel, psychotropen Stoffe, Vorläuferstoffe und Hilfschemikalien|publisher=Bundeskanzlei [Federal Chancellery of Switzerland]|access-date=January 1, 2020|language=de}}</ref> | *'''Switzerland''': Mushrooms of the species Conocybe, Panaeolus, Psilocybe and Stropharia are controlled under Verzechnis D.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.admin.ch/opc/de/classified-compilation/20101220/index.html|title=Verordnung des EDI über die Verzeichnisse der Betäubungsmittel, psychotropen Stoffe, Vorläuferstoffe und Hilfschemikalien|publisher=Bundeskanzlei [Federal Chancellery of Switzerland]|access-date=January 1, 2020|language=de}}</ref> | ||
*'''Turkey:''' The possession, growth, sale and consumption of mushrooms is illegal.{{citation needed}} | *'''Turkey:''' The possession, growth, sale and consumption of mushrooms is illegal.{{citation needed}} | ||
*'''United Kingdom:''' According to the 2005 Drugs Act, fresh and prepared psilocybin mushrooms are Class A.<ref> | *'''United Kingdom:''' According to the 2005 Drugs Act, fresh and prepared psilocybin mushrooms are Class A.<ref>{{Citation | vauthors=((Participation, E.)) | title=Drugs Act 2005 | url=https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2005/17/contents}}</ref> | ||
*'''United States:''' Psilocybin and psilocin are Schedule I drugs under the Controlled Substances Act of 1970. This means it is illegal to manufacture, buy, possess, process, or distribute without a license from the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA).<ref>FDA - Controlled Substances Act | | *'''United States:''' Psilocybin and psilocin are Schedule I drugs under the Controlled Substances Act of 1970. This means it is illegal to manufacture, buy, possess, process, or distribute without a license from the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA).<ref>{{Citation | year=2017 | title=FDA - Controlled Substances Act | url=https://archive.ph/2017.02.01-114453/http://www.fda.gov/regulatoryinformation/legislation/ucm148726.htm}}</ref>. Several US states and cities have decriminalised Psilocybin mushrooms. | ||
**Oregon: Oregon Measure 109 legalized the use of Psilocybin mushrooms to licensed service providers administering to individuals 21 years of age or older. | **Oregon: Oregon Measure 109 legalized the use of Psilocybin mushrooms to licensed service providers administering to individuals 21 years of age or older. | ||
**Colorado: Colorado proposition 122 legalizes psychedelic plants and fungi for adults age 21 and older. | |||
==See also== | ==See also== | ||
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==Literature== | ==Literature== | ||
*Passie, | *{{cite book |year= 1976 |title= Psilocybin: Magic Mushroom Grower's Guide |last1= McKenna |first1= Terence |last2= McKenna |first2= Dennis |author2-link= Dennis McKenna|others= Under the pseudonyms OT Oss and ON Oeric |publisher= And/Or Press |isbn= 978-0-915904-13-6 |location= Berkeley, CA}} | ||
*Tylš, F., Páleníček, T., & Horáček, J. (2014). Psilocybin–summary of knowledge and new perspectives. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 24(3), 342-356. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroneuro.2013.12.006. | *''Psilocybe Mushrooms & Their Allies'' (1978), [[Homestead Book Company]], {{ISBN|978-0-930180-03-4}} | ||
*Vollenweider, F. X., & Kometer, M. (2010). The neurobiology of psychedelic drugs: implications for the treatment of mood disorders. Nature | *Passie, T., Seifert, J., Schneider, U., & Emrich, H. M. (2002). The pharmacology of psilocybin. ''Addiction Biology'', 7(4), 357-364. [https://doi.org/10.1080/1355621021000005937 doi: 10.1080/1355621021000005937] | ||
*Agurell, S., & Nilsson, J. G. L. (1968). Biosynthesis of | *Tylš, F., Páleníček, T., & Horáček, J. (2014). Psilocybin–summary of knowledge and new perspectives. ''European Neuropsychopharmacology'', 24(3), 342-356. [http://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroneuro.2013.12.006 doi: 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2013.12.006] | ||
*Vollenweider, F. X., & Kometer, M. (2010). The neurobiology of psychedelic drugs: implications for the treatment of mood disorders. ''Nature Reviews Neuroscience'', 11(9), 642-651. [https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn2884 doi: 10.1038/nrn2884] | |||
*Agurell, S., & Nilsson, J. G. L. (1968). Biosynthesis of Psilocybin Part II*, Incorporation of Labelled Tryptamine Derivatives. Acta Chemica Scandainavica, 22(4). 1210-1218. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/a7b9/965618d632ff7de3a96fed11c9455b615d94.pdf | |||
==References== | ==References== | ||
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[[Category:Mushroom]] | [[Category:Mushroom]] | ||
[[Category:Entheogen]] | [[Category:Entheogen]] | ||
[[Category:Psychoactive substance]] | |||
[[Category:Psychedelic]] | [[Category:Psychedelic]] | ||